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Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/arteducationapplOOnichiala 


J.  H -WEjrBHOOaE.JDEi 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1 877,  by 

HARPER    &    BROTHERS, 

In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


TO  MY  FRIEND, 

PARKE  GODWIN, 

IN  ADMIRATION  OF  HIS  EMINENT  SERVICES  IN  BEHALF  OF  ART  AND  LITERATURE, 


INTRODUCTION. 


The  object  of  this  book  is  to  show  the  present  need  of  art  education 
in  the  United  States ;  to  relate  something  of  its  history  in  Europe  ;  to  ex- 
plain what  is  meant  by  its  application  to  industry ;  and  to  propose  a  meth- 
od of  instruction  best  adapted  to  our  people  and  institutions. 

The  broad  meaning  of  the  term  "  art  education "  has  not  always  been 
understood.  It  is  most  often  used  in  its  relation  to  the  fine  arts  of  paint- 
ing, sculpture,  and  architecture,  as  if  these  higher  arts  and  the  industries 
were  not  mutually  dependent,  or  as  if  the  boundary  which  is  supposed  to 
separate  them  were  not,  in  all  three  of  the  arts,  constantly  invaded,  so  that 
often  the  product  of  the  industry  may  be  called  a  work  of  art. 

In  fresco-painting,  monumental  ornamentation,  decoration  of  pottery, 
in  the  manufacture  of  bronzes,  and  in  many  other  ways,  the  work  of  the 
mechanic  becomes  a  work  of  art. 

But  the  term  "  art  education  "  is  used  here  in  the  largest  sense.  It 
means  artistic  and  scientific  instruction  applied  to  common  trades  and  oc- 
cupations, as  well  as  to  the  fine  arts.  It  means  that  the  educated  sense  of 
the  beautiful  is  not  the  especial  property  of  one  class,  but  that  it  may  be 
possessed  and  enjoyed  by  all. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 
THE  UNITY  OF  ART. 


The  Unity  of  Art. — Drawing  the  First  Step  lu  Art  Education, — Color. — Knowledge  and 
Taste  for  Art  in  the  United  States. — No  SystenQatic  Eflfort  toward  Art  Education. — 
Drawing  in  the  Public  Schools Page  17 

CHAPTER  II. 

THE  CLASSES  WHO  SHOULD  BE  INSTRUCTED. 

The  Four  Classes  who  should  be  interested  in  Art  Education. — First  Class,  Children. — 
Second  Class,  Workmen. — List  of  Some  of  the  Trades  wherein  Art  Instruction  is 
needed. — Fourth  Class,  Capitalists. — Patrons  of  Art. — The  Metropolitan  Museum. — 
Boston  Fine  Art  Museum 22 

CHAPTER  III. 
APPLICATION  OF  ART  TO  INDUSTRY. 

Application  of  Art  to  Industry. — What  is  meaut  by  the  Terms  Art  and  Industry. — How 
Art  may  be  applied  to  Industry. — Architecture  and  Architects. — Steamboat  Archi- 
tecture.— Building  Architecture. — Household  and  Other  Furniture. — Architecture 
of  Musical  Instruments.  —  Pottery. —  Household  Decoration. — The  Laws  of  Mo- 
hammed   29 

CHAPTER  IV. 

INFLUENCE  OF  INDUSTRY  UPON  ART. 

The  Principles  which  control  the  Art  of  Design 43 

CHAPTER  V. 

INDUSTRY  AND  ART  IN  THE  MIDDLE  AGES  AND  RENAISSANCE. 

Industry  and  Art  in  the  Middle  Ages. — Sphyrelaton,  or  Wrought-iron. — Works  in  En- 
amel.— Faience. — Objects  of  the  Toilet. — Bronzes. — Cabinet-work. — Wood-carving. 
— Cabinet  carved  by  the  Monks  of  Clairvaux. — Art  of  Design  in  the  Middle  Ages  and 
the  Nineteenth  Century. — The  Treasures  of  Hildesheim 47 


12  CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  VI. 
ART  EDUCATION  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN. 

English  Plan  of  Art  Education. — Committee  of  the  Council  for  Education  seek  Informa- 
tion.— Lord  Stanley's  Letter  in  1867,  asking  Foreign  Ministers  for  Facts  with  Regard 
to  Technical  and  Art  Education. — The  South  Kensington  Museum. — Its  Programme 
of  Instniction. — Tahle  showing  Number  of  Persons  receiving  Instruction  in  Draw- 
ing in  1873 Page  65 

CHAPTER  YH. 
ART  EDUCATION  IN  FRANCE. 

Art  Education  in  France. — Schools  of  Design  in  Paris. — No  General  Programme  of  In- 
struction directed  by  the  Government  as  in  Belgium  and  England. — The  ficole  des 
Beaux  Arts. — Statistics  showing  the  Increase  of  Art  Productions  in  England  over 
those  of  France  from  1847  to  1868. — The  Union  Centrale  of  Fine  Arts  applied  to  In- 
dustry at  Paris. — History  and  Plan  of  its  Organization. — Prosper  M^rimde  on  the 
Universal  Exposition  of  1862. — Expositions  of  the  Union  Centrale. — Novelty  and 
Beauty  of  those  Expositions. — Expositions  of  Art  and  Industry  in  the  United  States. 
— The  Sevres  Manufactory 70 

CHAPTER  VHI. 

BELGIUM. 

Art  Education  in  Belgium. — The  Congress  of  Art  in  1868. — Demand  for  Improved  Meth- 
ods of  Art  Education  based  upon  the  Principles  of  Geometry. — Decree  of  King  Leo- 
pold appointing  a  Commission  to  investigate  and  report  upon  the  Condition  of 
Schools  and  Academies  in  Belgium. — Report  of  Commissioners. — Programme  of  Art 
Education  adopted  by  the  Government,  and  put  in  Practice  in  the  Schools. — Excel- 
lence ofthis  Programme 92 

CHAPTER   IX. 

ART  EDUCATION  IN  PRUSSIA  AND  BAVARIA. 

Art  Education  in  Prussia  and  Bavaria. — General  Survey  of  Plan  of  Industrial  Schools  in 
Prussia.  —  Schools  of  Higher  Instruction. — The  Trade  Schools  in  Bavaria.  —  Royal 
Indnstrial  School  in  Nuremberg.  —  Trade  Schools  in  Nuremberg  as  an  Example  of 
Others  in  Bavaria 99 

CHAPTER  X. 

AUSTRIA. 

Art  Education  in  Austria. — Trade  Schools  established  and  conducted  by  the  Provincial 
Authorities,  and  not  by  the  Central  Government. — The  Vienna  Exposition  of  1873. 
— Schools  of  Design  and  Art  applied  to  Industry  in  Vienna. — Academy  of  Plastic 
Arts. — School  of  Fine  Arts  applied  to  Industry. — School  of  Design  and  of  Modeling 


CONTENTS.  13 

for  Art  and  Industry. — Public  School  of  Design  and  Industry. — Schools  for  Builders, 
Masons  and  Stone-cutters,  Carpenters,  and  Spinners Page  107 

CHAPTER  XL 
SWITZERLAND. 

Art  Education  in  Switzerland.  —  Thorough  Result  of  Compulsory  System  of  Education 
in  Common  Schools.  —  Government  does  not  favor  Technical  Education  in  Public 
or  Special  Schools. — Private  Technical  Schools  at  Lausanne ;  at  St.  Imier,  for  Watch- 
makers; at  Brienz,  for  Wood-carvers  ;  at  Trogen,  for  Weavers Ill 

CHAPTER  XH. 

ITALY. 

Art  Education  in  Italy. — Not  the  Public  Policy  to  give  Art  Education  in  the  Public 
Schools. — No  General  System  of  Art  Education. — It  is  confined  to  Particular  Indus- 
tries.— Schools  for  Wood-carving  in  Florence. — Schools  for  Art  Manufactures,  etc.,  at 
Savona. — Schools  of  Design  and  of  Sculpture  apjilied  to  Ornamentation  at  Serravez- 
za.  —  Schools  in  Ornamental  Design  at  Bologna,  Milau,  Bergamo,  Modeua,  Brescia, 
Como,  Naples,  Bome,  Venice,  and  many  other  Cities 113 

CHAPTER  Xni. 

ART  INSTRUCTION  AND  TECHNICAL  EDUCATION  IN  NORTHERN  EUROPE 

AND  SPAIN 

Art  Education  in  the  Northern  Countries  of  Europe. — Trade,  Sunday,  and  Night  Schools. 
— In  these  Countries  no  extended  Effort  in  the  Way  of  Art  Education. — Art  Educa- 
tion in  Spain. — The  Societies  "Amigos  del  Pais,"  Academies,  and  other  Institutions 
of  Arts  and  Industries 117 

CHAPTER  XIV. 
GENERAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Education  in  the  United  States. — The  Common  School  and  its  Programme  of  Instruction. 
— Too  many  Studies  and  too  much  Study. — Cramming. — Education  made  Practical. 
— Higher  lustitutions  of  Education. — Colleges,  Academies,  Universities. — Instrnc- 
tiou  in  these  should  be  more  Practical. — University  of  Cincinnati 121 

CHAPTER   XV. 
ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Art  Education  in  the  United  States. — The  Need  of  Art  Education. — Difficulty  of  the 
Adoption  of  any  of  the  European  Plans. — The  State  of  Massachusetts. — Professor 
Smith's  Plan  of  Education. — Results  of  the  Experiment. — Drawing  taught  in  the 
Schools  of  Cincinnati  and  New  York. — Special  Schools  of  Art  Instruction. — Cooper 
Institute. — School  of  Design  for  Women  at  Philadelphia. — School  of  Design  of  the 


14  CONTENTS. 

University  of  Ciuciunati.  —  National  Academy  of  Design,  New  York.  —  Schools  in 
Lowell  and  Worcester,  Massachusetts 126 

CHAPTER   XVI. 

THE  BEST  METHOD  OF  ART  INSTRUCTION  FOR  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The  best  Method  of  Art  Education  for  the  United  States. — Differences  between  the  Euro- 
pean Programmes  of  Education. — The  Methods  of  lustructiou  most  practiced  in  this 
Country  Injurious  rather  than  Beneficial. — General  Plan  of  a  Proper  System  of  lu- 
structiou.— Adaptation  of  the  Scheme  to  the  Common  Schools  in  the  United  States, 
— Merits  of  the  System  of  Drawing  from  Solids  in  Eelief. — How  this  Plan  is  Useful 
to  all  Classes. — Time  occupied  in  these  Studies.  —  Superior  Instruction.  —  Course 
of  Superior  Instruction:  Painting,  Sculpture,  Architecture.  —  The  Teacher. — Nor- 
mal Schools.  —  Plan  of  Instruction  may  be  varied  in  tlie  Interest  of  Localities. — 
Practical  Application  of  the  Arts  of  Painting,  Sculpture,  and  Architecture  to  Vari- 
ous Industries Page  132 

CHAPTER  XVH. 
CONCLUSION 

E68um6  upon  Art  Education. — Supplementary  Chapter  upon  the  Centennial  Exposition. 
— Art  Industries  at  the  Exposition. —  Influence  of  the  Art  Industries  of  Foreign 
Countries  upon  those  of  the  United  States. — Brief  E€sum6  of  the  Art  Industries  of 
All  the  Nations  at  the  Exposition 152 

APPENDIX : 

Akt  Education  ix  Great  Britain 189 

Statement  of  Exports  from,  and  Imports  into,  the  United  States,  with 
THE  Relation  of  Each  to  Articles  into  the  Manufacture  of  which 
Art  enters 201 

List  of  Books  and  Essays  used  in  the  Preparation  of  this  Work 203 

INDEX , 205 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PAOK 

Bryant  Vase  (Steel) Frontispiece 

Roman  Plate  discovered  at  Hildes- 

IIEIM 19 

Amphora.      Campagna    Collection, 

MusEE  Napoleon 20 

Wedgwood  Cameos 21 

Persian  Jar 24 

Helmet  of  the  Sixteenth  Century.  27 

Copper  Lamp.  — From  a  Mosque 32 

SuRAHE.     Persian  Faience 35 

Celtic  Pottery. — Found  in  Staf- 
fordshire   37 

An    Egyptian    Pottery.  —  From    a 

Tomb .38 

Greek  Vase,  by  Timogras.  —  Cam- 
pagna Collection,  Musee  Napo- 
leon   39 

COREAN  Jar  of  Persian  Decoration.  41 
Posset -POT,     Staffordshire,     Fif- 
teenth Century 42 

Leather  Shoe  of  the  Regency 44 

Damaskeen  Casket 45 

Buckler  of  the  Period  of  Henri  II.  49 

Enameling 51 

Leonard  Limousin .54 

Salt-cellar.    Oiron  Faience .56 

Tea-pot.     Ellers  Ware. 57 

James  Wedgwood's  First  Tea-pot...  57 

Norman  Ware 58 

Norman  Jar 58 

Decorated  Valencia  Vase 60 

Romano-British  Ware 61 

Roman  Drinking-cup. — From  Hildes- 

HEIM 63 


PAGE 

Antique  Ornament 64 

Josiah  Wedgwood's   Cream   Ware, 

painted  with  autumn  leaves 66 

Saxon  Jug 67 

Saxon  Jar 67 

Oiron  Faience 71 

J.  F.Millet 73 

Troyon 74 

Chasuble,  Sixteenth  Century 77 

Dalmatica  of  the  Fifteenth  Cent- 
ury    79 

Indian  Leather  Shoe 82 

Woman's  Shoe,  India 82 

Sandal,  India 82 

Indian  Shoe  with  Pointed  Toe 82 

Chinese  Shoe  for  Natural  Foot....  83 

Chinese  Shoe  for  Deformed  Foot..  83 

Patten 83 

Pointed    Shoe    of    the   Fifteenth 

Century 83 

Persian  Slipper  worked  with  Seed- 
pearls 83 

Shoe  embroidered  with  Silver 83 

Sandal. — From  Pondiciierry 83 

Shoe  of  Catherine  de  Medicis 84 

Shoe  of  the  Fifteenth  Century 84 

Shoe  of  De  Montmorency 84 

Slashed  Venetian  Patten 85 

High  Venetian  Patten 85 

German  Woman's  Shoe,  Seventeenth 

Century 85 

Wooden  Sandal  with  Button,  India.  85 

Painted  Open  Sandal. — From  India.  85 

Int)ian  Shoe 86 


16 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PAGE 

Patten  of  Corduan,  Sixteenth  Cent- 
ury      86 

German  Shoe,  Sixteenth  Century...     86 

Tile. — From  Malvern  Abbey 88 

The  Raphael  and  Fornarixa  Plate.     90 
Mirror-case    enameled    "vJ^ith    Pre- 
cious Stones.     Period  of  Henri 
III.      Collection   of   Madame  la 
Baronne  Gustave  de  Rothschild.    93 

Tile. — From  Chertsey  Abbey 98 

Egyptian  Necklace 98 

Tile  Decoration.  —  From  Cruden's 

Chapel 101 

Pitcher  decorated  by  Bernard  Pa- 

LISSY 105 

Chinese  Ornament 106 

Vase  of  the  Ferrara  Manufactory.  108 

Ov^FORM  Majolica  Vase 112 

Faenza  Fruit-dish  ornamented  with 

Amorini,  Trophies,  etc 114 

Roman  Bowl  of  Samian  Ware 115 

Antique  Ornament 117 

FORTUNY 118 

Arab  Urn 119 

Design  of  Man  and  Bird 120 

Roman  Bowl  of  Samian  Ware 122 

Roman  British  Pitcher,  Thirteenth 

Century 123 

Weijwn  Ware,  English 125 

Roman  British  Pitcher,  Thirteenth 

Centiiry 127 

Etruscan  Vase 129 

Romano-British  Upchurch  Ware 130 

Fanciful  Ornament 131 

Staffordshire  Tig,  or  Drinking-cup, 

Seventeenth  Century 133 

Bronze  Vase  decorated  with   Sil- 
ver.— Found  at  Pompeii 134 

Articles  of  Toilet  in  Bronze  and 

Other  Metals. — From  Pompeii 136 

Miliarium  Bronze  Brazier.  —  From 

Pompeii 137 

Marble  Vase.— From  Pompeii 138 


PACK 

Romano-British  Caster  Ware 140 

Romano-British  Urn,  of  Red  Clay..  141 
Bronze  Water  Pitchers. — From  Pom- 
peii   142 

Celtic  Urn 143 

Etruscan  Vase  in  Black  Basalt 144 

British  Butter-cup. — Year  1500 14G 

Lamps  and  Oisnaments  in  Bronze 
AND  Terra  Cotta. — Found  at  Pom- 
peii   150 

King  Charles  II.  Cup 152 

Masks 154 

Persian  Coffee-pot 156 

Candelabrum,  in  the  Collection  of 
James  Gordon  Bennett.    Made  by 

Tiffany  &  Co 157 

Romano -British  Caster  Ware 161 

Staffordshire  Saucer 162 

Compotier — Wedgwood  Ware 162 

Cameos  by  Wedgwood  —  White  on 

Blue  and  Olive-gray  Grounds 163 

Ice  Pails — Wedgwood  Ware 164 

Saxon  Pitcher 165 

White-ware  Perforated  Dish 165 

Ornament 166 

Palissy  Dish,  of  his  Earuest  Ware.  167 

Mediaeval  Watering-pot 168 

Wedgwood  Cameos 169 

Saxon  Pitcher 171 

Spanish  Damaskeen 172 

Egyptian  Pottery  and  Metal  Work.  173 

Camel  Saddle,  Egypt 175 

Glass  Lamp. — From  Mosque  in  Cairo.  176 
PowTAi,  THE  God  of  Contentment...  177 

Imperial  Robe,  Chinese 178 

Japanese  Military  Costume 180 

Chinese  Ornament 181 

Japanese  Monster 183 

Japanese  Dragon 184 

Japanese  Ornament 186 

Chasing  Floral  Designs  on  Copper.  187 

Chinese  Inscription 188 

Japanese  Phcenix 188 


ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE  UNITY  OF  ART. 


The  Unity  of  Art. — Drawing  tbe  First  Step  in  Art  Educaticm. — Color. — Knowledge  and 
Taste  for  Art  in  the  United  States. — No  Systematic  Effort  toward  Art  Education. — 
Drawing  in  the  Public  Schools. 

The  most  important  principle  to  be  presented  in  this  discussion  is, 
that  all  art  education  should  proceed  upon  the  theory  of  the  Unity  of  Art. 
It  is  an  opinion  too  often  accepted  that  there  is  a  decided  and  wide  sep- 
aration between  the  applied  and  tlie  fine  arts ;  and  a  line  has  sometimes 
been  drawn  which  has  excluded  from  recognition  as  a  work  of  art  any  ob- 
ject whose  construction  is  based  upon  the  useful.  Neither  in  the  ancient 
days  of  Greece  and  Rome,  nor  during  the  Renaissance,  was  such  a  separa- 
tion known.  It  was  not  until  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.,  of  France,  in  the 
eighteenth  century,  that  the  distinction  between  the  fine  arts  and  applied 
arts  was  made,  and  then  it  was  devised  as  a  protection  of  the  artist  against 
the  rapacity  of  the  wealthy  corporations.  In  later  days  the  arts  again  be- 
came united ;  and  at  the  present  time  the  industries  employ  the  highest 
order  of  artistic  genius  and  skill. 

In  the  past,  artistic  culture  was  the  privilege  of  the  few ;  now  it  is  the 
opportunity  of  the  many.  In  Europe,  art  instruction  is  freely  to  be  ob- 
tained, and  is  sometimes  obligatory.  In  the  United  States,  it  is  a  work 
just  begun,  and  nowhere  certainly  recognized  or  established. 

DRAWING. 

Drawing  is  the  first  step  in  art  instruction,  for  it  is  by  means  of  the 
sense  of  sight  that  the  best  faculties  of  men  are  cultivated.  The  knowl- 
edge of  drawing  enables  its  possessor  to  see  objects  truthfully ;  and  while 
it  is  an  accomplishment  which  occupies  spare  time  and  gives  pleasure,  it  is 
also  one  of  the  necessities  of  the  working-man's  education.     It  is  as  useful 

2 


18  ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 

to  the  mason,  carpenter,  goldsmith,  potter,  engraver,  and  other  artisans,  as 
are  the  respective  tools  of  their  trades.  To  the  artist,  drawing  is  the  al- 
phabet and  grammar  of  his  language ;  it  presents  the  life  and  understand- 
ing of  his  thought :  without  it  he  could  not  express  an  idea.  Drawing  is 
the  language  of  the  engineer  as  well  as  of  other  men  of  science.  Indeed 
it  would  be  difficult  to  name  any  department  of  art,  science,  or  industry 
where  it  is  not  called  into  requisition,  for  by  its  means,  facts  and  ideas  are 
expressed  which  could  not  otherwise  be  understood. 

Drawing,  then,  is  the  beginning  of  any  system  of  instruction  which  has 
for  its  aim  general  art  education. 

COLOR. 

In  this  book  reference  is  often  made  to  what  is  assumed  to  be  good 
taste  in  color;  such  as  the  rugs,  shawls,  and  manuscripts  of  Persia  and 
India,  the  mural  decoration  of  the  Moors,  the  cloisonne  work  and  deco- 
ration of  pottery  of  the  Chinese  and  Japanese,  and  in  other  examples. 
These  are  thought  by  persons  who  observe  and  study,  to  be  especially 
pleasing  to  the  eye.  Undoubtedly  we  admire  certain  combinations  of 
form  and  color,  and  dislike  others,  without  knowing  why;  and  although 
these  conclusions  are  innate,  or  in  some  measure  the  results  of  education, 
vet  the  final  development  of  form  and  color  is  obtained  in  obedience  to 
scientific  laws. 

In  the  art  industries,  color  occupies  a  place  next  to  form.  In  painting, 
it  is  necessary  to  know  what  are  the  effects  of  combination,  juxtaposition, 
and  contrasts  of  color  upon  objects  of  different  texture,  such  as  paper,  cot- 
ton, silk,  wool,  or  other  substances.  This  knowledge  comes  only  with  long 
experience,  or  by  the  study  of  the  science  of  color.  Within  a  few  years 
tliis  science  has  made  important  progress,  especially  in  its  physical  and 
physiological  features,  which  have  been  developed  by  the  experiments  of 
Ilelmholtz,  Maxwell,  and  others.  The  new  theories  have  been  admirably 
set  forth  by  Wilhelm  Von  Bezold,  in  a  work  which  has  been  translated 
and  recently  published  in  this  country. 

The  Theory  of  Color,  in  its  relation  to  art  industries,  is  a  subject  which 
requires  far  more  serious  attention  than  has  been  given  by  any  of  the  sys- 
tems of  art  education  now  in  operation  in  this  country  or  in  Europe.  In 
many  of  the  schools  and  academies,  an  attempt  to  teach  the  use  of  color  is 
based  upon  false  and  injurious  principles. 

It  is  one  of  the  remarkable  incidents  in  scientific  discovery  that 
Young's  theory,  developed  in  1802,  that  "  the  three  primal  colors  depend 
only  upon  the  eye,"  was  set  aside  or  forgotten  for  more  than  fifty 
years.     During  this  interval,  Sir  David  Brewster  and  others  advanced  the 


AKT  KNOWLEDGE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


19 


opposite  proposition  that  "  the  tliree  primal  colors  were  in  light  itself." 
Young's  theory  did  not  re-appear  until  1853,  when  Helmholtz,  in  his  mas- 
terly investigations,  demonstrated  its  truth. 

The  artist  and  the  artisan  are  continually  misled  by  various  tlieories 
and  "  scliemes,"  such  as  color-charts  with  false  combinations  of  colors,  but 
especially  by  their  failure  to  appreciate  the  differences  between  the  mixt- 
ure of  colors  and  of  pigments.  It  is  well,  therefore,  to  recognize  the  fact 
that  we  can  not  attain  the  best  success,  either  in  our  arts  or  industries, 
except  by  the  careful  study  of,  and  adherence  to,  sound  principles. 

ART  EDUCATION. 

In  this  country  the  conditions  of  art  knowledge  are  exceptional.  It 
would  not  be  strictly  true  to  say  that  there  is  but  little  art  taste  here,  when 
our  citizens  go  into  the  ateliers  of  the  most  famous  artists,  and  into  the 


Koraan  Plate  discovered  at  Uildesheiiu. 


20 


ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 


auction-room,  and  contest  possession  of  costly  works  with  the  richest  con- 
noisseurs of  Europe.  In  Europe  as  well  as  in  the  United  States,  people 
sometimes  buy  pictures  upon  the  strength  of  the  author's  name,  and  with- 
out caring  for  their  artistic  merit.  Among  us,  as  among  older  nations, 
tliere  is  genuine  taste  for  pictures,  music,  line  architecture,  house  decora- 
tion, dress,  ornamentation,  landscape-gardening,  rare  books,  and  all  objects 
which  art  has  touched  and  beautified.  This  art  culture  is,  however,  indi- 
vidual rather  than  general.  It  is  possessed  by  a  considerable  number  of 
persons ;  but  these  rarely  come  together,  and  they  exert  little  or  no  per- 
ceptible influence  upon  society.  Occasionally  gentlemen  of  generous  pub- 
lic spirit,  as  was  recently  the 
case  in  the  city  of  New  York, 
gather  rare  works  of  art  from 
private  collections,  and  make 
of  them  a  public  exhibition  for 
the  benefit  of  art  or  charity; 
but  these  are  rare  exceptions  to 
the  general  practice. 

The  National  Academy  of 
Design  in  New  York  has  been 
a  powerful  means  of  education ; 
yet,  like  the  Royal  Academy  in 
London,  its  influence  is  crip- 
pled, because,  with  excellent  in- 
tentions, it  is  conducted  by  pro- 
fessional artists  in  the  interests 
of  themselves  rather  than  in 
furtherance  of  the  general  in- 
terests of  art.  It  is  a  praise- 
worthy institution,  and  fills  an 
important  oflice,  so  far  as  its 
influence  extends.  The  Metropolitan  Museum  in  the  same  city  has  the 
better  organization ;  it  is  broad  and  receptive.  There  are  also  the  Bos- 
ton Athenaeum,  the  Pennsylvania  Museum  at  Pliiladelphia,  and  the  Cor- 
coran Gallery  at  Washington.  These  and  similar  efforts  are  doing  good, 
to  a  limited  extent.  They  exercise  an  influence  for  culture  and  refine- 
ment ;  but  it  is  general,  and  not  direct.  In  order  to  reach  the  people 
at  large,  it  is  necessary  to  organize  a  plan  which  shall  begin  with  primary 
instruction  in  drawing  in  the  public  schools.  We  require  a  system  of 
education  which  shall  be  comprehensive  in  its  conception,  universal  in 
its  application,  and  practical  in  its  results.      Such  organized  means  of 


Amphora.    Caiupagna  Collection,  Mns^e  Napol6on. 


ART  IS  PRACTICAL  AS  WELL  AS  ^STHETICAL. 


21 


art  education  has  existed  among  us  only  in  a  restricted  way.  There  arc 
a  few  schools  of  design  in  different  parts  of  the  country ;  but  until  very 
recently  there  has  been  no  effort  toward  the  art  education  of  the  masses 
of  the  people,  and  especially  of  those  industrial  classes  whose  occupations 
require  a  knowledge  of  Design. 

The  American  mechanic  has  heretofore  been  more  ingenious  than  ar- 
tistic. His  inventive  faculty  exceeds  that  of  any  other  people,  but  he  has 
not  had  the  advantages  of  artistic  training.  He  has  tilled  the  world  with 
useful  labor-saving  machines,  without  adding  much  to  the  sum  of  grace 
and  beauty. 

We  have  attempted  to  put  the  machine  in  the  place  of  the  man.  It 
has  been  the  tendency  of  our  industries  to  save  labor  by  making  the  la- 
borer almost  as  automatic  as  the  machine  itself.  The  idea  that  art  has 
any  necessary  relation  to  industry  rarely  enters  into  the  mind  of  those 
most  interested  in  the  matter.  Our  mechanics  are  too  often  workmen, 
and  not  artisans.  If  this  condition  of  things  is  not  changed,  we  shall  go 
on  in  our  subserviency  to  European  art  products,  aud  will  never  be  able 
to  gain  any  independence  or  individuality.  Art  is  not  simply  an  amuse- 
ment, an  indulgence  which  delights  the  fancy  of  the  idle  and  rich.  It  is 
decidedly  practical,  and  concerns  the  well-being,  the  advancement,  the 
pleasure,  of  the  laborer  and  the  poor.  Whenever  art  is  applied  to  the 
simplest,  commonest  product  of  labor,  there  will  come  order,  intelligence, 
grace,  and  increased  value.  Art  is  not  the  privilege  of  a  class ;  it  is  essen- 
tially human,  and  is  both  individual  and  universal. 

How  can  it  be  developed  ?  How  can  it  be  applied  ?  How  can  it  be 
put  to  the  best  use?  There  need  be  no  uncertain  answer  to  these  ques- 
tions. The  experience  of  other  nations  teaches  us  what  we  have  to  do, 
and  how  it  is  to  be  done.  It  is  by  technical  education  in  public  and 
special  schools ;  by  the  study  of  great  works  of  art ;  by  the  establishment 
of  museums  which  shall  be  open  to  the  public ;  by  the  organization  of 
societies  in  the  interest  of  special  industries ;  by  expositions  of  pictures, 
statuary,  objects  of  ancient  art,  and  of  all  products  into  whose  composi- 
tion art  may  enter. 


22  ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 


CHAPTER  IL 

THE  CLASSES  WHO  SHOULD  BE  INSTRUCTED. 

The  Four  Classes  who  should  be  interested  in  Art  Education. — First  Class,  Children. — 
Second  Class,  Workmen.  —  List  of  some  of  the  Trades  wherein  Art  Instrnctiou  is 
needed. — Fourth  Class,  Capitalists. — Patrons  of  Art. — The  Metropolitan  Museum. — 
Boston  Fine  Art  Museum. 

The  most  serious  difficulty  encountered  in  the  beginning  of  this  dis- 
cussion is  in  ascertaining  how  to  approach  and  influence  the  persons  who 
most  need  art  instruction. 

If  this  want  were  confined  alone  to  children,  the  matter  could  be  easi- 
ly arranged.  It  would  be  simply  to  ascertain  the  best  method  of  teaching 
in  schools,  special  and  public,  and  then  go  about  it  vigorously.  But  other 
classes  need  instruction ;  and  the  trouble  in  America  is,  that  many  of  the 
master-workmen,  the  manufacturers,  and  the  capitalists  are  as  uninformed 
and  indifferent  as  the  men  they  employ.  There  has  been  so  little  of  tech- 
nical education,  so  little  of  instruction  showing  how  art  may  be  applied  to 
the  common  uses  of  life,  that  the  persons  most  requiring  knowledge  are 
surprisingly  ignorant. 

Under  the  employer,  there  is  another  class  for  whose  special  education 
there  is  no  provision  in  this  country.  This  class  consists  of  the  master- 
workmen,  who  organize  and  elaborate  those  more  difficult  works  which 
require  scientific  culture. 

The  master -workman  is  the  superintendent.  All  over  Europe,  such 
men  are  instnicted  in  special  schools  which  provide  for  all  important 
branches  of  trade. 

In  America,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  schools  of  mines  and  technol- 
ogy, there  is  no  attempt  to  build  up  this  class.  The  master-workman,  in 
some  way  or  other,  principally  because  he  is  more  energetic  and  intelligent 
than  his  fellows,  reaches  the  superintendent's  place ;  but  of  that  wide 
range  of  scientific  knowledge  which  he  ought  to  possess,  he  lias  nothing, 
and  stumbles  on  by  such  light  only  as  experience  has  given  him.  Every 
day  we  find  it  necessary  to  send  to  Europe  for  men  to  manage  important 
interests,  because  we  have  so  few  schools  in  which  they  can  be  properly 


INSTRUCTION  IN  DRAWING  IN  EUROPE.  23 

taught.  Meanwhile  our  children  in  the  public  schools  are  burdened  with 
studies  they  never  will  be  able  to  utilize.  In  all  of  our  public  education, 
from  the  primary  school  to  the  college,  we  need  more  that  is  practical. 
The  Royal  Superior  Industrial  School,  the  Architectural  School,  and  the 
Work  -  masters'  School  at  Chemnitz;  the  trade  schools  all  over  Germa- 
ny ;  the  Ecoles  Industrielles  in  Belgium ;  the  Central  School  of  Arts  and 
Trades  of  France,  are  a  few  of  the  many  institutions  in  Europe  devoted 
to  that  instruction  which  enables  its  pupils  to  fill  any  position  in  the  im- 
portant industries. 

MEANS  OF  INSTRUCTION  FOR  THE  FOUR  CLASSES  NAMED  ABOVE. 

FIRST   CLASS. 

As  soon  as  children  are  old  enough  to  go  to  school,  they  should  be 
taught  the  elements  of  design  as  based  upon  the  study  of  descriptive  ge- 
ometry. In  the  primary  classes  they  might  first  be  taught  geometrical 
terms,  so  that  the  ear  shall  be  familiar  with  their  sounds  and  meaning. 
At  the  same  time  the  slate  and  pencil  should  be  placed  in  the  hands  of 
the  pupil,  so  that  he  may  learn  to  draw  simple  geometrical  forms.  From 
these  simpler  lessons  he  should  be  advanced  to  higher  grades.  It  is  not 
proposed,  at  this  time,  to  define  what  should  be  the  methods  of  study ;  but 
the  proposition  can  not  be  too  clearly  established  that  there  can  be  no  gen- 
eral art  education,  except  by  the  teaching  of  drawing  in  the  public  schools. 
Tbis  is  not  the  hasty  conclusion  of  a  few  persons ;  it  is  the  matured  judg- 
ment of  the  educational  authorities  of  the  great  European  nations. 

The  governments  of  France,  England,  Belgium,  and  Germany  have  ap- 
pointed commissioners,  who  have  thoroughly  examined  this  question,  and 
in  each  instance  it  has  been  the  deliberate  conclusion  that  the  interests  of 
society  and  commerce  require  that  drawing  should  be  one  of  the  studies 
in  common-school  education.  Besides  the  advantage  of  higher  culture,  it 
is  asserted  with  great  force  that,  in  order  to  establish  and  maintain  those 
industries  into  which  taste  and  beauty  enter,  the  children  in  all  schools 
should  be  taught  to  draw.  The  wisdom  of  this  system  has  been  proved 
by  the  results  of  its  practice. 

The  case  of  England  is  specially  significant.  Through  the  adoption  of  a 
plan  of  general  education,  by  which,  in  the  year  1874,  some  three  hundred 
thousand  children  were  taught  the  art  of  design,  she  has  gained  pre-emi- 
nence in  the  commerce  of  many  important  industries.  France  and  Bel- 
gium have  not  been  idle.  Through  every  effort  of  public  instruction, 
they  are  striving  to  regain  their  former  control  in  the  manufacture  and 
sale  of  those  articles  which  are  the  offspring  of  taste  and  knowledge.  In 
the  city  of  Paris  all  the  school-children  are  taught  to  draw ;  and  the  min- 


24: 


AKT  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 


ister  of  public  instruction  asks  that  the  study  of  drawing  shall  be  intro- 
duced into  tlie  fifty  thousand  public  schools  of  the  republic.  In  Belgium, 
a  royal  decree  has  placed  art  education  upon  a  new  and  broad  basis  of  in- 
struction for  the  whole  people. 

In  the  United  States,  in  the  midst  of  our  inaction,  we  have,  at  least,  the 
great  advantage  of  having  no  false  steps  to  retrace.     In  an  attempt  to  lay 

the  foundation  of  a  great  system,  we 
have  the  opportunity  of  beginning  in 
the  right  way.  The  other  nations 
named  above  are  teaching  us  wliat  not 
to  do,  as  well  as  what  to  do ;  and  while 
the  difference  between  their  political 
institutions  and  methods  of  public  in- 
struction and  ours  will  require  us  to 
modify  and  change  the  details  of  art 
education,  the  general  principles  of  a 
proper  method  will  remain  the  same  in 
the  United  States  as  in  Europe. 

This  chapter  is  devoted  more  espe- 
cially to  the  best  method  of  instruct- 
ing the  poor  classes  in  the  community. 
If  the  first  class  (children)  are  properly 
instructed,  in  the  course  of  several  gen- 
erations the  second  class  (workmen) 
will  naturally  become  very  much  small- 
er. But  it  can  not  be  expected,  for  a 
long  time  to  come,  that  drawing  in  the  public  schools  will  be  adopted  so 
generally  that  there  will  not  always  be  large  numbers  of  adult  mechanics 
who  have  never  had  any  art  education. 


Persian  Jar. 


THE    SECOND   CLASS. 

The  second*  class,  who  are  working-men,  are  not  so  easily  reached. 
They  can  be  taught  drawing  and  other  special  studies,  fitted  for  their 
particular  occupation,  in  night-schools. 

The  impediment  in  the  accomplishment  of  this  work,  however,  will  be 
to  get  at  this  class,  and  persuade  them  that  they  need  such  instruction. 
Schools  could  be  provided  for  them  either  by  the  State,  or  by  the  benefac- 
tions of  wealthy  persons  ;  but  the  greatest  and  best  influence  toward  their 
instruction  would  be  by  co-operation  —  not  the  co-operation  of  "  trades- 
unions  "  and  "  strikes,"  whose  purpose  it  is  to  get  higher  rates  of  wages 
for  less  work,  but  that  co-operation  which  helps  them  to  become  better 


INSTRUCTION  NEEDFUL  FOR  CERTAIN  TRADES.  25 

workmen,  more  skilled  in  the  use  of  their  tools  and  material.  If  a  Imn- 
dredtli  part  of  the  money  which  has  been  deceitfully  and  fruitlessly  ob- 
tained from  the  working-man  upon  pretense  of  the  rights  of  labor  had 
been  used  co-operatively  in  establishing  industrial  schools,  the  interests  of 
the  mechanic  and  workman  would  have  been  far  in  advance  of  their  pres- 
ent position.  Let  us  see,  for  example,  what  trades  would  be  beneiited  by 
instruction,  and  what  kind  would  be  best. 

We  will  here  enumerate  a  few  trades,  with  the  particular  kinds  of  in- 
struction proper  to  each : 

Fresco  -painters. — Drawing ;  knowledge  of  composition ;  color ;  and 
chemistry. 

Silver  and  Gold  Smiths. — Drawing  ;  modeling ;  color  ;  chemistry. 

Engravers  and  Lithographers. — Drawing ;  composition  ;  color ;  chem- 
istry. 

Photographers. — Drawing;  color;  chemistry;  composition. 

Farmers. — Drawing ;  chemistry. 

Boot  and  Shoe  Makers  and  Tailors. — Drawing  ;  color ;  design  ;  knowl- 
edge of  good  material. 

Button-makers. — Drawing  ;  color ;  chemistry. 

Manufacturers  of  Silk,  Cottmi,  Linen,  and  Woolen  Cloths. — Drawing ; 
chemistry;  color. 

Machinists. — Drawing ;  mechanics. 

Printers. — Drawing ;  color. 

Molders. — Drawing  and  modeling. 

Mechanical  Engineers. — Drawing ;  and  perhaps  a  few  hints  as  to  al- 
loyage,  and  the  working  of  iron  ore;  mathematics  enough  for  the  pur- 
poses of  construction. 

Masons  and  Carpenters. — Drawing ;  perhaps,  also,  some  knowledge  of 
the  materials  used  in  building,  and  the  modes  of  preparing  them ;  the 
elements  of  geometry. 

Weavers. — Drawing  of  patterns ;  directions  as  to  gluing  the  warp ; 
perhaps,  also,  an  account  of  the  preparation  of  the  raw  material  until  tit 
for  weaving,  and  of  the  qualities  of  yarns. 

Cabinet  -  makers  and  Turners. — Modeling ;  color ;  drawing. 

Potters. — Drawing;  modeling,  and  knowledge  of  various  kinds  of  glaz- 
ing; color. 

Comh-makers. — Drawing. 

Millers.  —  Drawing  of  the  various  details  of  the  mill ;  mathematics ; 
methods  of  grinding ;  mill  arrangements. 

Dyers. — Notices  of  the  character  of  the  different  dye-stuffs,  and  their 
action  on  the  different  materials  to  be  dyed ;  color. 


26  ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 

Basket-makers. — Drawing. 

Glaziers. — Drawing ;  modes  of  testing  the  qualities  of  glass. 
Stucco-plasterers. — Drawing ;  modeling. 

House-painters. — Drawing ;  a  knowledge  of  colors,  and  how  to  unite 
them. 

Gardeners. — Drawing. 

Cotton-printers. — Drawing ;  and  some  notions  of  chemistry. 

Tinmen. — Drawing. 

Tile-layers. — Drawing ;  mathematics. 

WagoiiA)uilders. — Drawing ;  mathematics. 

Coppersmiths. — Drawing ;  modeling ;  mathematics. 

Iron  and  Brass  Founders. — Drawing ;  modeling ;  allojage. 

THE   THIRD   CLASS. 

Master- work  men  must  receive  the  education  necessary  for  the  impor- 
tant functions  they  may  be  called  upon  to  fill,  in  special  schools.  These 
men,  who  are  the  practical  directors  in  the  various  establishments  and  the 
manufactories,  must  have  the  opportunity  of  receiving  the  benefit  of  the 
hio^hest  technical  and  scientific  instruction. 

THE   FOURTH    CLASS. 

This  limited  class  occupies  a  position  of  highest  importance  in  the 
successful  solution  of  this  educational  problem.  It  consists  of  the  capi- 
talists, the  employers.  They  are  most  immediately  concerned  in  the  suc- 
cess of  a  scheme  of  progress  by  which  our  products  shall  find  sale  in  the 
markets  of  the  world. 

It  would  be  better,  of  course,  could  they  have  all  the  practical  knowl- 
edge which  is  required  of  every  one  whom  they  employ,  from  the  highest 
to  tlie  lowest ;  yet  that  is  scarcely  possible.  A  certain  amount  of  tech- 
nical information  they  must  liave,  in  their  particular  business.  The  influ- 
ence of  this  fourth  class  is  found  in  their  power  of  co-operation,  by  which 
art  education  may  be  advanced  in  all  directions.  They  can  establish 
museums,  expositions,  art  schools,  and  other  effective  agencies  of  education. 
Under  the  title  of  "  Co-operation  among  Manufacturers  and  the  Mercantile 
Class,"  in  another  part  of  this  book,  these  means  of  powerful  influence  are 
set  forth  more  at  length,  and  a  detailed  liistory  and  description  of  the  soci- 
ety, the  "Union  Centrale,"  is  given  as  an  example  of  what  such  associations 
may  accomplish. 

The  means  of  improving,  in  a  large  and  effective  way,  our  various  in- 
dustries nmst  come  from  the  producers  themselves.  It  is  they  who  should 
organize  public  effort,  stimulate  interest  and  enthusiasm.     From  their  in- 


ART  BENEFACTORS. 


27 


dividual  and  associated  exertions  should  come  public  exhibitions  which 
will  elevate  and  create  a  standard  of  taste.  In  technical  education  the 
capitalist  can  not  expect  the  public  schools  to  do  more  for  these  commer- 
cial interests  than  furnish  a  broad,  general  education  in  drawing  or  me- 
chanics, such  as  may  be  applied  to  any  of  the  mechanic  arts.  Special  tech- 
nical education  should  be  under  the  patronage  of  each  industry,  which 
knows  best  what  it  needs. 

The  special  schools  at  Vienna  and  in  other  parts  of  the  Old  World  are 
conducted  in  this  way,  and  will  serve  as  models  for  similar  institutions  in 
the  United  States. 

ART  BENEFACTORS. 

After  all,  from  the  merchant  and  manufacturer,  those  who  control  the 
capital  by  which  the  machinery  is  put  in  motion,  must  come  successful 
art  progress.  These  are  the  men  who  can  set  to  work  the  fertile  imagi- 
nations and  skilled  fingers  of  those  who  have  had  technical  instruction. 


Helmet  of  the  Sixteenth  Centnry. 


The  list  of  those  who  have  shown  practical  interest  in  art  education  is 
small,  in  contrast  to  the  thousands  of  merchants  and  manufacturers  who 
appear  not  to  know  or  care  about  tlie  matter.  Mr.  Peter  Cooper  has 
founded  a  school  of  design  which  is  attached  to  the  Cooper  Institute.     It 


28  ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 

has  already  accomplished  excellent  results.  Col.  R.  M.  Iloe,  of  !N"ew 
York,  the  celebrated  inventor  of  improved  printing-presses,  has  established 
a  school  for  technical  education,  for  the  benefit  of  his  employes.  The  re- 
sults have  been  highly  encouraging.  The  Philadelphia  Academy  of  Fine 
Arts  owes  its  existence  to  the  enlightened  exertions  of  Mr.  James  L. 
Claghorn,  who,  with  some  twenty-three  other  gentlemen  of  Philadelphia, 
contributed  two  hundred  and  forty  thousand  dollars  for  the  erection  of  a 
very  handsome  building,  and  the  establishment  of  a  school  of  art.  Mr. 
Joseph  Longworth,  of  Cincinnati,  has  given  one  hundred  thousand  dollars 
for  the  support  of  the  School  of  Design  connected  with  the  University  of 
Cincinnati.  Mr.  Lick,  of  San  Francisco,  has  also  bequeathed  a  large  amount 
of  money  for  the  endowment  of  an  art  school. 

Besides  these  few  private  benefactions,  for  the  express  purpose  of  art 
instruction,  there  are  several  institutions,  organized  by  w^ise  and  generous 
men  and  women,  which  have  direct  and  beneficial  relations  to  this  subject 
of  art  education.  Prominent  among  these,  as  has  already  been  stated,  is 
the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  New  York.  In  the  study  of  its  admirable 
collection  of  paintings,  the  young  artist  finds  invaluable  examples  of 
drawing,  color,  and  texture.  In  the  varied  display  of  porcelain  and  pottery, 
the  student  of  design  discovers  inexhaustible  material  for  his  occupation. 
In  all  its  rich  display  of  engravings,  statuary,  antique  vessels  of  use  and 
ornament,  there  is  material  for  the  inspiration  of  the  artist  and  mechanic. 
The  managers  of  the  Metropolitan  Museum  seem  to  understand  their  op- 
portunities of  usefulness.  Besides  the  few  days  in  every  week,  when  all 
may  enjoy  without  cost  the  privileges  of  the  Museum,  they  give  to  the 
art  students  of  the  Cooper  Institute,  the  National  Academy  of  Design, 
and  similar  institutions,  the  benefit  of  free  entrance  at  all  times.  The 
uses  for  art  instruction  of  the  Metropolitan  Museum  in  New  York,  the  art 
gallery  at  Yale  College,  the  proposed  museum  connected  with  the  School 
of  Technology  at  Boston,  are  of  high  value ;  but  they  are  an  assistance 
mainly  to  the  advanced  student  who  is  learning  the  technical  methods  of 
applying  art  knowledge  to  painting  and  sculpture. 

The  generous  patrons  of  the  Metropolitan  Museum  are  providing  a 
splendid  means  of  instruction.  Let  these,  with  others  of  equal  generosity, 
provide  for  the  primary  steps  in  the  knowledge  of  design,  by  which  such 
museums  can  be  made  yet  more  useful.  Let  them  co-operate  in  every 
way  for  this  great  benefaction  of  art  education. 

A  Museum  of  Fine  Arts  has  recently  been  organized  in  Boston  upon 
a  broad  and  generous  plan.  It  promises  great  usefulness  in  artistic  and 
industrial  education. 


MEANING  OF  ART  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY.  29 


CHAPTER  III. 

APPLICATION   OF  ART  TO   INDUSTRY. 

Application  of  Art  to  Industry. — What  is  meant  by  the  Terras  Art  and  Industry. — How 
Art  may  be  applied  to  Industry. — Architecture  and  Architects. — Steamboat  Archi- 
tecture.— Building  Architecture. — Household  and  Other  Furniture. — Architecture  of 
Musical  Instruments. — Pottery. — Household  Decoration.— The  Laws  of  Mohammed. 

At  one  of  the  important  expositions  of  art  and  industry  not  long  ago, 
a  gentleman  of  character  and  intelligence  was  standing  in  the  picture-gal- 
lery which  formed  a  valuable  part  of  the  exposition. 

"  I  can  understand,"  he  said,  pointing  to  Miiller's  "  Koll-call  of  the  Last 
Victims  of  the  Reign  of  Terror  in  the  French  Revolution  of  '93,"  "  that 
it  requires  a  great  deal  of  skill,  dramatic  power  of  expression,  and  all  of 
that,  to  paint  that  picture.  I  comprehend  what  is  meant  by  art  when 
looking  at  it,  and  works  of  Breton,  Decamps,  Meissonier,  Knaus,  and  the 
rest;  but  it  is  not  clear  to  me  what  is  meant  by  the  'application  of  art 
to  industry,'  which  you  talk  about,  and  which  I  read  about  now  and 
then.  What  does  it  mean  ?  How  are  you  going  to  apply  this  sort  of 
thing  "  (the  speaker  included  the  whole  collection  of  good  and  indifferent 
pictures  in  the  sweep  of  his  arm)  "  to  the  corn-shellers,  bedsteads,  pianos, 
steam-engines,  china  ware,  and  so  on,  over  in  the  other  buildings  ?"  Such 
questions  are  often  asked,  and  seldom  answered. 

What  is  art  ?  What  is  industry  ?  What  is  meant  by  the  "  application 
of  art  to  industry  ?" 

The  terms  art  and  industry,  in  their  relation  to  each  other,  are  now  in 
frequent  use  all  over  the  civilized  world,  and  among  most  of  the  leading 
nations  there  is  at  the  present  time,  more  than  ever  before,  an  effort  to 
unite  art  and  industry.  In  a  general  way,  the  public  know  that  the  re- 
sult of  this  is  to  make  the  common  utensils  of  life  beautiful,  instead  of 
ugly ;  but  just  what  art  and  industry  are  by  themselves,  and  the  process 
by  which  they  become  associated,  is  not  so  well  understood. 

In  the  beginning  of  a  work  which  aims  to  show  something  of  the  his- 
tory of  art  education  throughout  the  world,  and  why  and  how  it  should 
be  undertaken  in  the  United  States,  it  may  be  well  to  attempt  a  definition 


30  ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 

of  art  and  industry,  and  to  explain  liow  the  one  may  be  applied  to  the 
other. 

Industry  is  work.  It  is  the  action  of  the  muscular  and  moral  forces 
of  man  applied  to  production.  Art  is  also  a  production,  but  within  cer- 
tain conditions  and  with  a  certain  definite  object  in  view,  which  we  call 
grace,  beauty,  and  such  other  terras  as  express  something  attractive.  It 
is  the  province  of  art  to  invest  production  with  an  ideal  of  perfection. 
While  industry  sometimes  seeks  this  assistance  from  art,  it  must  be  re- 
membered that  art,  even  in  its  highest  expression,  demands  the  aid  of 
industry,  but  only  within  arbitrary  and  restricted  limits.  An  object  con- 
structed for  its  beauty  and  as  a  decoration  consults  only  the  law  of  beauty. 
But  in  the  application  of  art  to  industry,  the  uses  of  the  object  must 
never  be  forgotten.  The  products  of  industry  in  the  United  States  into 
which  art  enters  are  few,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  table  of  exports  and 
imports  in  the  Appendix.  Architecture  and  the  furniture  of  dwelling- 
houses,  offices,  etc.,  are  industries  which  employ  more  labor  than  most 
others.     What  has  been  the  influence  of  art  upon  these  ? 

ARCHITECTURE. 

Climatic  changes  influence,  if  they  do  not  dictate,  the  principal  forms 
of  architecture.  In  a  country  like  the  United  States,  whose  territory 
touches  upon  arctic  cold  and  tropic  heat,  whose  limits  embrace  every  con- 
dition of  atmosphere,  it  would  be  too  much  to  expect  a  distinctive  style  of 
architecture. 

In  Florida  and  Louisiana,  the  long  summer  seasons,  the  hot  sun,  with  its 
glaring  light,  call  for  wide  porticoes,  broad  piazzas,  open  passage-ways,  so 
as  to  moderate  the  heat  and  let  in  the  air.  In  Maine  and  Minnesota,  the 
brief  stay  of  the  sun,  the  short  summer,  the  fierce  blasts  of  winter,  the 
heavy  fall  of  snow,  demand  dwellings  compactly  built,  with  steep  and 
peaked  roofs,  which  retain  heat,  keep  out  the  winds,  and  shed  the  snow. 
While  we  may  not,  therefore,  look  for  an  American  style  of  architecture, 
we  must  strive  to  secure  obedience  to  the  laws  of  substantial  construction, 
liarmony,  and  grace.  It  is  only  recently  that  any  opportunity  has  been 
offered  in  this  country  for  education  in  the  art  and  science  of  architecture, 
and  even  now,  at  its  best,  the  means  of  instruction  are  in  many  ways  in- 
complete. 

It  is  a  great  misfortune  that  concert-halls,  churches,  and  theatres  should 
so  often  be  built  by  those  who  know  nothing  of  the  laws  of  ventilation, 
sound,  light,  and  heat.  It  is  wrong  that  these  edifices,  with  warehouses, 
hotels,  and  dwellings,  should  be  carried  high  up  into  the  air,  regardless  of 
the  conditions  which  govern  the  solidity  of  bodies,  and  the  effect  of  the 


Copper  Lamp.— From  a  Mosque. 


STEAMBOAT  ARCHITECTURE.  33 

mechanical  powers  in  the  combinations  of  wood,  stone,  and  metallic  sub- 
stances. Society  has  the  right  to  insist  npon  the  requirements  of  the 
science  of  architecture,  by  which  use  and  security  shall  be  obtained.  It 
would  be  of  general  benefit,  could  we  have  men  like  those  of  the  archi- 
tectural scliool  of  Chemnitz,  in  Prussia,  who  are  graduated  when  tliej 
can  pass  a  rigid  examination  in  drawing,  ornamentation,  arithmetic,  geom- 
etry, pliysics,  perspective,  languages,  and  mechanics. 

The  art  of  architecture  is  a  rare  accomplishment,  and  is  only  attainable 
by  exercise  of  the  faculties  of  judgment  and  taste,  and  by  study  of  the 
splendid  examples  of  classic  art. 

The  criticism  has  been  made  of  buildings  in  the  United  States,  that 
they  are  oftentimes  constructed  by  architects  who  are  not  builders,  or  by 
builders  who  are  not  architects.  If  this  remark  in  some  measure  be  true, 
there  are  noble  exceptions  in  all  parts  of  the  land,  where  the  union  of 
science  and  art  has  presented  some  of  the  most  beautiful  buildings  known 
in  modern  architecture.  The  architect  ought  to  be  the  master  of  many 
sciences.  He  should  not  only  know  things  by  their  outward  appearance 
— he  should  know  their  physical  properties  as  well.  We  have  two  classes 
of  architects  among  us.  The  first  are  men  who  have  more  or  less  knowl- 
edge of  the  science  and  art  of  architecture ;  the  second  are  men  who  have 
been  carpenters  or  masons,  and  have  risen  in  their  trade,  but  know  little 
or  nothing  of  either  the  art  or  science  of  architecture. 

Artists  and  workmen  like  Phidias  and  his  associates,  Ictinus  and  Cal- 
lierates,  who  built  the  Parthenon,  are  not  numerous  in  our  days ;  nor  has 
modern  civilization  produced  master-masons  and  builders  like  Sens  and 
his  namesake  AYilliam,  who  built  the  cathedral  of  Canterbury ;  neither  do 
we  erect  Parthenons,  nor  such  cathedrals  as  that  of  Canterbury,  in  this  age. 

STEAMBOAT  ARCHITECTURE. 

In  this  country,  the  architecture  which  has  had  a  distinctive  character 
and  originality  is  that  of  the  steamboat,  and  especially  that  of  the  steam- 
boat on  our  Western  rivers.  Those  large  passenger  and  freight  boats, 
which  carry  a  great  many  passengers,  with  thousands  of  tons  of  freight, 
thousands  of  miles,  are  among  the  wonderful  creations  of  modern  times. 
Yery  stately,  graceful,  and  picturesque  are  they,  as  they  move  rapidly 
along  over  the  turbid  waters  of  the  beautiful  Ohio  and  broad  Mississippi 
rivers.  Very  often  they  possess  real  beauty  of  form,  as  one  story  or  deck 
surmounts  the  other,  rising  from  the  water's  edge  in  harmonious  propor- 
tions. First,  there  is  the  lower  deck,  with  its  huge  wheel-house  and  its 
broad  open  space  forward ;  then  there  is  the  second  story,  with  its  long 
ranges  of  cabins ;  above  these  the  "  hurricane,"  with  the  officers'  cabins 

3 


34  ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 

and  the  airy  and  picturesque  pilot-house  looking  over  many  miles  of  wa- 
ter, forest,  and  meadow-land. 

Most  impressive  of  all  are  the  tall  black  stacks  and  pipes,  whence  rush 
masses  of  brown  and  black  smoke  and  white  steam,  which  mingle  in  up- 
per air  in  exquisite  tints  and  strange  forms.  In  architectural  details 
these  boats  might  be  yet  finer.  In  color  they  could  be  improved ;  but  the 
dangers  of  night  service  have  compelled  the  use  of  white :  yet  here  and 
there  good  taste  often  adds  touches  of  red,  gold,  or  green  which  relieve 
the  general  effect. 

Take  it  all  in  all,  the  Western  steamboat  is  a  superb  spectacle.  It  is  a 
result  of  the  necessities  of  commerce,  guided  by  natural  good  taste. 

HOUSEHOLD  AND  OTHER  FURNITURE. 

The  abundance,  cheapness,  and  beauty  of  our  native  woods  have  given 
rise  to  the  extensive  manufacture  of  furniture. 

In  the  West  especially,  where  these  woods  are  procurable  at  small  cost, 
the  commonest  furniture  is  made  solid  of  such  woods  as  walnut,  beech, 
and  maple.  Yery  often,  while  the  forms  are  ungraceful,  the  object  it- 
self is  inconvenient,  and  badly  put  together.  It  is  shipped  to  the  extreme 
South  or  the  Western  border,  or  to  foreign  countries  less  civilized  than 
our  own.  Cincinnati  is  a  city  where  a  great  deal  of  cheap  furniture  is 
manufactured  and  sold,  and  here  has  arisen  a  school  of  wood -carving 
whose  work  compares  with  the  best  results  of  the  Renaissance. 

Even  to-day  this  school  of  wood-carving  has  few  superiors  in  Euroj^e. 
Henry  Fry,  and  his  son,  William  Fry,  introduced  the  art  into  Cincinnati. 
Henry  Fry  is  an  Englishman  by  birth,  and  served  his  apprenticeship  un- 
der Paxton.  His  later  years  have  been  devoted  to  architectural  construc- 
tion, to  designs  for  armoires,  sideboards,  book-cases,  and  similar  articles, 
which  have  been  carved  chiefly  by  his  son. 

William  Fry  was  born  in  the  West.  From  boyhood  he  hungered  for 
adventures  and  the  sea.  This  desire  he  gratified  to  the  most  hazardous 
and  romantic  extent.  For  many  years  he  was  a  sailor  before  the  mast, 
and  visited  all  the  countries  and  all  the  great  sea-ports  of  the  world.  Sev- 
eral times  shipwrecked,  he  saved  his  life  by  pluck,  and  by  the  exercise  of 
rare  physical  power.  Perhaps  this  is  not  exactly  the  experience  out  of 
which  to  make  an  artist.  The  artistic  faculty  may  have  been  fostered  by 
the  romance  of  adventure ;  but  whether  it  was  or  not,  it  is  certain  that 
William  Fry  is  a  man  of  a  fine  order  of  genius.  His  artistic  power  ex- 
hibits itself  not  so  much  in  the  drawing  of  the  human  figure  as  in  the 
adaptation  of  natural  forms  to  ornamentation.  And  here  the  skilled  fin- 
gers obey  with  precision,  grace,  and  symmetry  the  poetic  impulse  of  his 


WOOD  CARVING  IN  CINCINNATI. 


35 


fertile  mind.  With  marvelous  rapidity,  from  under  the  touch  of  his  chisel 
grow  drooping  ferns,  pendent  wreaths  of  leaves  and  flowers,  full-plum- 
aged  birds,  climbing  vines  of  jessamine  and  ivy,  feathery  grasses,  grace- 
ful and  elaborate  arabesques.  His  representations  of  natural  objects  arc 
not  the  language  of  mere  imitation,  but  charming  translations.  They  arc 
not  seen  with  a  cold,  unsympathizing  eye,  but  rather  with  that  of  love  and 
sentiment.  His  sculptures  from  the  tough  and  twisted  grain  of  oak,  ebony, 
walnut,  and  cherry  are  full  of  motion.  The  caress  of  his  hand  brings 
forth  the  tenderness  of  bud,  the  softness  of  leaf,  the  perfume  of  flower, 
and  an  ever-present  suggestion  of  that 
sense  of  beauty  whose  expression  is  the 
best  attribute  of  genius. 

Robert  Eogers  is  another  artisan 
of  Cincinnati  who  shows  excellent 
faculty.  Mr.  Rogers  is  a  cabinet- 
maker, rather  than  wood -carver.  A 
few  years  ago  he  was  a  house-carpen- 
ter and  joiner.  The  School  of  De- 
sign gave  him  the  opportunity  of  ac- 
quiring a  knowledge  of  drawing  and 
the  art  of  design,  which  has  developed 
artistic  faculty.  This  has  shown  itself 
in  composition,  as  well  as  in  carving. 
The  book -cases,  escritoires,  hanging- 
cabinets,  and  sideboards  produced  by 
Mr.  Rogers  are  worthy  of  record  in 
the  history  of  industrial  art  in  this 
country.  These  examples  (and  oth- 
ers could  be  mentioned)  in  Cincinnati 
are  given  to  show  how  admirable  and 
effective  are  any  means  of  education 
in  art.  The  School  of  Design  in  that 
city  is  exercising  a  genuine  influence  in  all  directions  of  art  culture. 
In  many  of  the  Eastern  cities,  tasteful,  well-constructed  furniture  is  pro- 
duced ;  and  within  a  year  or  two  past,  the  influence  of  Eastlake's  book  on 
Household  Architecture  has  been  manifested  by  the  rapid  sale  of  articles 
of  household  use  which  are  models  of  simplicity  and  grace.  At  the  great 
industrial  centres  also,  where  articles  of  decoration  are  made,  it  is  begin- 
ning to  be  understood  that  sale  depends  upon  a  knowledge  of  applying 
the  rules  of  art  to  physical  labor. 

To  the  manufacturer  as  well  as  the  laborer,  the  necessity  will  soon  pre- 


Snrahe.    Persian  Faience. 


36  AET  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 

sent  itself  of  acquiring  some  knowledge  of  drawing,  modeling,  perspective, 
composition,  and  color,  in  order  to  gain  reputation  and  success  in  their 
calling, 

ARCHITECTURE  OF  MUSICAL  INSTRUMENTS. 

It  miglit  have  been  presumed  that  music,  that  purest  and  most  divine 
of  arts,  would  have  lent  a  graceful  hand  in  fashioning  its  instruments  of 
expression.  And,  indeed,  where  the  instrument  has  distinct  individuality, 
like  the  violin,  horn,  lute,  flageolet,  viola  di  gamba,  clarionet,  and  hai-p, 
its  shape  is  graceful,  and  expresses  the  idea  of  its  sound.  The  larger  in- 
struments which  attempt  to  combine  many  others  have  lost  this  harmony 
of  form  and  expression. 

The  shape  which  is  required  by  the  mechanism  of  a  piano,  especially 
the  "  grand,"  i^  in  some  respects  graceful ;  but  in  other  points  the  ingenu- 
ity of  man  is  exercised  to  make  it  the  opposite.  What  can  be  more  un- 
pleasant than  the  piano-case,  with  its  large  expanse  of  polished  varnish,  re- 
flecting all  surrounding  objects?  Varnished  woods  in  the  adornment  of 
the  interior  of  houses  are  always  objectionable.  The  oiled  woods  show 
more  clearly  their  grain  and  color,  and  the  tone  improves  with  time.  The 
polished  piano  in  the  drawing-room  is  worse,  if  possible,  than  a  glass  mir- 
ror. Another  offense  is  the  leg  of  the  modern  piano.  Formerly  the 
large,  heavy  body  of  the  instrument  rested  upon  straight,  strong  supports, 
of  not  ungraceful  form.  ]^ow,  however,  one  must  pay  more  for  a  piano- 
leg,  which  makes  a  curve  nearly  equal  in  extent  to  its  height,  expressing 
weakness  and  ugliness  rather  than  strength  and  comeliness. 

While  decided  changes  in  the  outer  finish  of  pianos  may  be  sought, 
there  is  a  yet  greater  opportunity  for  architectural  and  ornamental  design 
in  the  screen  of  the  church-organ,  which  is  the  only  part  of  that  noble 
instrument  in  view.  The  old-fashioned  screen  of  golden  pipes  was  pleas- 
ing to  the  eye.  It  was  not  incongruous  with  any  style  of  architecture, 
while  it  had  the  distinguishing  merit  of  indicating  the  oflice  of  the  instru- 
ment. Of  late  years,  however,  the  organ-builders  fashion  screens  meant 
to  be  architectural,  but  which  only  illustrate  bad  taste.  The  large  organ- 
builders  sometimes  have  fixed  patterns  for  each  instrument  of  a  certain 
size  and  price;  and  the  order  of  architecture,  if  the  design  has  the  dignity 
of  approaching  an  order,  may  or  may  not  bear  relation  to  that  of  the  hall 
or  church  in  wliich  it  is  placed.  The  organ  being  the  most  prominent  ob- 
ject in  the  interior  of  a  church,  the  architecture  of  its  screen  should  as 
surely  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  architect  of  the  building  as  its  faQade 
or  pulpit.  If  not  in  the  hands  of  the  architect,  it  should  be  placed  in 
those  of  an  artist.  Yet  how  often  is  the  eye  offended  by  an  oi'gan-sereen 
utterly  inharmonious  with  the  place  and  its  belongings.     How  suggestive 


POTTERY  AN  ARTICLE  OF  USE  AND  BEAUTY. 


37 


and  beautiful  might  it  be  made — not  only  graceful  in  its  harmonious  re- 
lation to  the  architecture  of  the  building  in  which  it  is  placed,  but  in  its 
relation  to  music  and  the  arts  of  j)ainting  and  sculpture !  An  illustration 
of  how  art  may  thus  be  allied  with  a  product  of  industry  may  be  seen  in 
the  screen  of  the  organ  in  the  Music-hall  in  Boston. 


POTTERY. 


No  industry  is  more  charmingly  allied  to  art  than  that  of  pottery. 
Either  in  articles  of  beauty  or  of  use,  it  benefits  all  classes  of  society.  In 
its  uses,  pottery  is  the  necessity  of  the  poorest  laboring-man,  while  the 
plastic  substance  of  which  it  is  composed  yields  to  the  hand  of  genius  the 


Celtic  Pottery.— Found  iu  Stafifordshire. 


finest  and  highest  artistic  possibilities.  During  the  history  of  mankind, 
many  of  the  industries  have  had  periods  of  rise  and  fall,  and  for  a  time 
the  most  important  of  these  have  disappeared ;  but  pottery  has,  in  one  or 
another  condition,  been  continuously  produced. 

Some  of  the  most  interesting  passages  in  the  history  of  the  human 
race  have  been  written  in  vessels  of  clay  and  porcelain.  What  matei'ial  is 
there  more  fragile  than  the  potter's  clay  ?  Yet  to-day  the  finger-marks  of 
the  kings  of  Babylon,  whose  names  even  we  do  not  know,  remain  on  the 
clay  tablets  where  they  impressed  their  seals.  From  the  tombs  of  the 
Thebau  hills,  where  the  mummies  of  Egyptian  priests  and  conquerors  have 
fallen  to  dust,  come  forth  vessels  of  sacred  and  common  use,  as  perfect 
in  form  as  when  borne  in  the  hands  of  their  first  owners  three  thousand 


38 


ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 


years  ago  ;  wliile  Pompeii,  buried  in  volcanic  ashes,  presents  thousands  of 
pitchers,  vases,  and  other  objects  for  the  pleasure  and  inspiration  of  subse- 
quent centuries.     These  objects,  which  seem  so  fragile,  are  less  perishable 


i  1 


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than  temples,  and  statuary,  and  the  more  ambitious  works  of  man.  Tliey 
not  seldom  outlive  the  fame  of  warriors  and  statesmen.  Upon  that  mas- 
terpiece of  Greek  art  known  as  the  "Frangois  vase,"  in  the  Campagna 


MANUFACTURE   OF  POTTERY  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


39 


collection  of  the  Musee  Napoleon,  there  is  the  proud  inscription :  "J5;>- 
(jotinus  made  ine,  Clitim  painted  meP  In  the  same  collection  is  the 
vase  by  Tiniogras,  which  finely  declares :  ^''Audocide  appears  beautiful  to 
ThnograsP 

Certainly  no  modern  production  of  ceramic  art  can  be  compared  with 
these  wonderful  vases.  Yet  at  the  present  period,  Europe,  and  more 
especially  Asia,  has  revealed  new  and  beautiful  resources  in  pottery. 


Greek  Vase,  by  Timograe.    Campagna  CollectioD,  Mns^e  Napolfion. 

These  more  recent  works  are  infinite  in  variety,  and  have  enlisted  the 
genius  of  the  architect,  sculptor,  and  painter.  Of  all  the  industries,  none, 
perhaps,  offer  a  larger  field  for  the  art  of  design  than  that  of  pottery.  It 
is  not  surprising,  when  we  see  the  United  States  so  far  behind  all  other 
countries,  even  in  the  mechanical  devices  of  this  industry,  to  find  that  she 
does  not  exhibit  the  slightest  evidence  of  a  knowledge  of  its  exquisite  art. 
The  manufacture  of  pottery  in  the  United  States  is  as  yet  in  its  in- 
fancy. In  that  extensive  commerce,  which  in  England,  France,  Germany, 
and  Italy  employs  so  much  artistic  labor,  we  have  but  little  part.  Our 
potteries  are  few,  and  they  produce  only  the  cheaper  and  simpler  undeco- 


40  ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 

rated  stone  and  earthen  ware.  But  it  is  hard  for  the  potter's  wheel  to 
turn  out  ungraceful  shapes.  Even  in  this  country,  the  commonest  pot- 
tery, where  it  is  not  white,  has  pleasing  tints  of  yellow  and  gray.  Tiles, 
jugs,  jars,  pitchers,  and  various  dishes,  even  if  the  material  be  coarse  and 
unadorned,  are  fashioned  in  shapes  of  comeliness  and  sometimes  of  grace. 

THE  PRINCIPLES  WHICH  CONTROL  THE  ART  OF  DESIGN. 

In  the  art  of  decoration  and  design  there  are  certain  rules  which  gov- 
ern and  define  what  is  best  and  most  appropriate.  It  is  seldom  that  the 
human  figure  can  be  used  in  decoration.  Even  the  servile  imitation  of 
any  natural  object  is  injurious  to  the  best  design.  Among  the  highest 
examples  of  rich  and  beautiful  design  are  Japanese  decoration ;  the  ara- 
besques and  decorations  of  Moorish  architecture ;  and  especially  Persian, 
Indian,  and  Turkey  carpets,  shawls,  and  vases,  where  there  is  a  hint  of 
some  natural  object,  animal  or  vegetable,  but  not  often  an  imitation  of 
them.  It  is  said  that  the  followers  of  Mohammed  never  imitated  the 
human  figure  or  that  of  animals.  Although  many  of  the  Mohammedans 
have  consulted  their  own  pleasures  and  tastes  in  construing  the  laws  of 
the  Prophet,  in  the  main  they  have  obeyed  them. 

"  O  Believers,"  says  the  Koran,  "  wine,  games  of  chance,  and  statues 
are  an  abomination  invented  by  Satan.  Abstain  from  these,  and  you 
will  be  happy."  Again  the  Prophet  proclaims  to  his  disciples :  "  Woe 
to  him  who  has  painted  a  living  thing.  At  the  last  judgment-day  the 
persons  who  have  been  represented  will  come  out  from  their  pictures 
and  demand  from  him  a  soul."  At  another  time  Mohammed  said : 
"  God  has  sent  me  against  three  classes  of  men,  to  annihilate  and  con- 
found them  :  these  are  the  proud,  the  polytheists,  and  the  painters.  Be- 
ware, then,  of  representing  God  or  man,  and  paint  only  trees,  flowers, 
and  inanimate  objects," 

As  a  rule,  the  Mussulmans  have  obeyed  the  stern  commands  of  Mo- 
hammed ;  and  the  arbitrary  creed  of  a  religious  sect  has  brought  into 
existence  the  most  perfect  and  beautiful  forms  of  art. 

Nothing  can  be  more  curious  or  attractive  than  the  examination  and 
study  of  the  forms  in  many  of  the  shawls,  carpets,  rugs,  vases,  shields,  and 
cups  of  the  East.  Their  general  appearance  presents  a  mass  of  wonder- 
fully rich  and  harmonious  colors,  a  depth  and  brilliancy  of  tone  which  is 
produced  by  a  multitude  of  pure  tints  placed  in  harmonious  juxtaposition. 
At  first  sight  there  does  not  appear  to  be  any  symmetrical  arrangement 
of  forms,  but  a  closer  examination  reveals  a  regular  design  which  governs 
the  entire  work.  The  objects  in  Jthis  design  are  frequently  repeated  in  a 
general  way,  but  no  two  are  ever  exactly  alike.     There  is  always  that 


THE  HUMAN  FIGURE  SHOULD  NOT  BE  USED  IN  DECORATION.        41 

slight  diversity  which  is  so  charming  in  hand-made  work,  and  wliich  is 
never  attained  in  the  imitations  attempted  in  Western  Europe  by  ma- 
chinery. In  the  various  objects  represented,  there  are  the  most  perfect 
examples  of  natural  objects  conventionalized.  The  artists  have  just  indi- 
cated, while  they  do  not  imitate,  the  individual  characteristics  of  a  thou- 
sand things  of  animal  and  vegetable  life,  such  as  buttei-flies,  birds,  trees, 
fruits,  and  flowers. 


Corean  Jar  of  Persian  Decoration. 

In  modem  decoration  the  human  figure  is  often  pressed  into  service 
in  a  manner  wliich  is  degrading.  Its  frequent  use  would  divert  sculpture 
and  painting  from  their  true  mission,  which  is  to  educate  us  to  a  high 
conception  of  the  beautiful  by  separating  beauty  of  form  and  idea,  as 
embodied  in  the  human  figure,  from  vulgar  and  material  uses.  "We  daily 
see  the  human  figure,  in  one  or  another  costume,  supporting  lamp-shades 


42  ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 

or  carrying  candlesticks ;  it  serves  as  handles  to  water  -  pitchers,  arms  to 
chairs,  and  many  other  purposes  foreign  to  its  proper  dignity. 

Diderot  very  happily  criticised  this  tendency  in  his  time,  when  gazing 
upon  the  celebrated  historical  clock  made  by  Falconnet.  It  represented 
the  Three  Graces  supporting  a  globe,  which  was  also  the  clock -dial. 
*'  These  figures,"  said  he,  "  show  every  thing  except  the  hour." 

Those  principles  which  recognize  the  importance  of  geometrical  and 
arbitrary  forms  in  design  have  become  established.  In  all  the  important 
schools  of  industrial  design  in  England,  France  and  Belgium,  the  student 
from  the  beginning  is  taught  geometrical  forms.  It  is  in  the  practice  of 
these  well-considered  methods  of  instruction  in  the  United  States  that  w^e 
are  to  get  the  best  results  of  the  application  of  art  to  industry.  This  sub- 
ject has  been  most  admirably  stated  by  the  distinguished  author  Daviond. 
He  says :  "  The  union  of  art  and  industry  is  an  object  of  industry,  which 
is  transfigured  and  elevated  into  the  beautiful,  by  its  taste  and  delicacy 
of  adjustment.  The  limit  which  separates  industry  from  art  is  the  obli- 
gation of  industry  to  respect  organic  nature,  and  principally  man,  whose 
spiritualistic  beauty  and  character  can  not  accommodate  themselves  to 
the  common  objects  of  life  except  in  a  restrained  measure,  and  always 
in  obedience  to  the  principles  whose  employment  is  permitted  by  archi- 
tecture." 


INFLUENCE  OF  INDUSTRY  UPON  ART.  43 


CHAPTER  IV. 

INFLUENCE   OF  INDUSTRY   UPON  ART. 
The  Principles  which  control  the  Art  of  Design. 

A  WORK  of  art  is  a  law  to  itself.  The  sculptor  makes  use  of  clay  and 
marble,  the  painter  of  pigments  and  canvas,  as  the  means  to  express  his 
idea  of  beauty. 

The  purely  artistic  idea  may  be  removed  from  the  thought  of  use,  yet 
the  influence  of  industry  upon  art  is  varied  and  essential.  Of  the  arts  of 
sculpture,  painting,  and  architecture,  those  of  sculpture  and  painting  are 
not  seriously  modified  or  changed,  either  in  principles  or  practice,  by  the 
intervention  of  industry.  The  same  simple  tools  and  the  same  material 
have  been  in  use  since  the  birth  of  these  arts.  A  mass  of  clay,  stone,  mar- 
ble, or  wood,  with  a  handful  of  tools,  are  the  essentials  of  one ;  a  piece  of 
canvas,  or  panel,  or  porcelain,  with  colors,  brushes,  and  pencils,  serves  for 
the  other.  Industry  has  a  greater  influence  on  painting  than  upon  sculp- 
ture, for  the  quality  of  the  pigments,  brushes,  and  canvas  has  a  great  deal 
to  do  with  the  expression  of  the  artistic  conception. 

Architecture,  which  is  the  art  of  construction  in  accordance  with  the 
principles  of  the  beautiful,  as  has  been  said  in  a  previous  chapter,  makes 
use  of  human  industry  in  very  many  ways.  So  great  is  the  influence  of 
industry  upon  architecture,  that  the  architect,  in  making  his  plan  for  a 
building,  is  obliged  to  take  into  consideration  many  industrial  elements. 

The  association  of  industry  and  art  is  seen  in  what  may  be  denomi- 
nated ornamentation  of  buildings,  such  as  wood-carving,  fresco-painting, 
sculpture  which  enters  into  the  actual  construction,  painted  or  stained 
glass  windows,  tiles,  as  well  as  bronzes  and  porcelain-ware,  not  in  house- 
hold use.  These  illustrate  the  fact  that  mechanical  industry  enters  largely 
into  the  production  of  what  belongs  peculiarly  to  the  domain  of  art.  But 
the  modern  discoveries  of  science  add  infinitely  to  the  obligations  of  art 
to  industry. 

By  means  of  printing,  industry  reproduces  in  various  ways,  from  steel, 
copper,  and  stone,  the  most  beautiful  works  of  art,  and  by  new  processes 


44 


ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 


most  curious,  ingenious,  and  effective,  like  those  of  the  autotype,  photo- 
graph, heliotype,  and  photolithograph,  presents  the  thought  of  the  artist 
and  Nature  herself  in  very  complete  form. 

It  is  frequently  remarked  that  the  general  reproduction  of  works  of  art 
makes  them  commonplace,  and  their  influence  injurious  rather  than  bene- 
ficial. One  gets  very  tired  of  chromo-lithographs  and  poorly  executed 
prints  of  the  works  of  great  masters ;  but  it  is  well  to  consider  if  it  is  not 
better  to  try  to  have  these  copies  made  in  the  best  way,  rather  than  reject 
them  altogether.  We  can  not  possess  the  grand  statue  of  the  Venus  of 
Milo,  but  a  mechanical  reproduction  in  plaster  is  a  most  satisfactory  sub- 
stitute. It  certainly  is  no  injury  to  art,  or  the  masterpieces  of  Raphael 
and  Kembrandt,  if  we  repeat  numberless  good  engravings  and  etchings 
of  these.  There  are  certain  industrial  efforts  which  seek  to  imitate  the 
texture  and  color  of  works  of  industry  and  of  art  by  methods  and  with 
materials  essentially  different  from  those  of  the  originals.  This  attempt 
to  deceive,  like  all  shams,  is  extremely  harmful,  and  can  not  be  too 
severely  reprehended.  But  repetitions  of  works  of  art  which  are  ani- 
mated by  artistic  motives,  even  though  they  are  articles  of  commerce,  can 
not  become  too  general.  They  place  the  most  beautiful  thoughts  of  the 
best  men  within  the  reach  of  a  great  many  people,  and  help  to  purify  and 
enlighten  the  social  atmosphere. 

The  artist,  however,  in  his  creations,  must  take  heed  that  the  indus- 
trial elements  shall  occupy  a  subordinate  place ;  that  while  he  may  avail 
himself  of  scientific  and  industrial  methods,  his  conception  of  the  beauti- 
ful must  preserve  all  its  independence  and  liberty. 


A  CURIOUS  DAMASKEEN  CASKET.  47 


CHAPTER  V. 

IXDUSTRY  AND  ART  IN  THE  MIDDLE  AGES  AND  RENAIS- 
SANCE. 

Industry  and  Art  in  the  Middle  Ages. — Spbyrelaton,  or  Wrougbt-iron. — Works  in  En- 
amel.— Faience. — Objects  of  the  Toilet. — Bronzes. — Cabinet-work. — Wood-carving. 
— Cabinet  carved  by  tbe  Monks  of  Clairvaux. — Art  of  Design  in  the  Middle  Ages  and 
tbe  Nineteenth  Century. — The  Treasures  of  Hildesheim. 

The  art  products  of  the  Middle  Ages  serve  as  admirable  models  in  art 
education.  It  would  require  a  great  many  volumes  to  attempt  to  describe 
tbe  objects  characteristic  of  the  principal  industrial  arts  of  that  period. 
Public  museums,  like  those  of  South  Kensington  and  the  Hotel  de  Cluny, 
as  well  as  many  private  collections  in  England  and  on  the  Continent,  are 
full  of  these  exquisite  works  of  art.  In  variety  and  style  they  represent 
all  classes  of  society  and  every  condition  of  life.  They  are  very  often  the 
products  of  men  who,  in  their  own  day,  were  known  as  artists  of  genius 
and  skill.  The  beautiful  carvings,  illuminations,  coffers,  mosaics,  and  pot- 
tery found  among  these  have  a  definite  art  value,  kindred  to  that  of  the 
paintings  and  sculpture  of  the  old  masters. 

It  is  embarrassing  among  so  many  things,  curious  and  beautiful,  to 
select  those  which  best  represent  any  phase  of  industrial  art. 

One  of  the  rarest  of  works  in  damaskeen  has  a  romantic  and  somewhat 
mysterious  history.  At  the  close  of  the  last  century  a  merchant  of  curios- 
ities, who  kept  a  shop  on  the  bridge  of  the  Rialto,  possessed  a  superb  steel 
casket,  covered  with  arabesques  of  gold  and  silver  of  the  most  exquisite 
workmanship.  The  sculptor  Canova  pronounced  it  one  of  the  most  re- 
markable of  the  works  in  damaskeen  in  all  Italy.  It  was  bought  at  a  high 
price  by  the  Marquis  de  Trivulci. 

The  arabesques,  which  interlace  each  other  and  cover  the  exterior  of 
the  casket,  are  of  gold.  In  the  bottom  of  the  box  upon  a  thin  surface  of 
gold,  incrusted  with  steel,  is  a  planisphere  in  the  form  of  a  heart ;  upon 
the  exterior  of  the  cover  there  is  a  chart  of  Italy,  Albania,  Dalmatia,  and 
the  adjacent  islands ;  upon  its  interior  face  is  drawn  in  gold  damaskeen 
a  map  of  France  and  Spain.     From  the  latter  extend  names  of  cities  in 


48  ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 

threads  of  gold  and  silver.     Upon  the  cornice  of  the  box  may  be  read  this 
inscription  :  '■'■Pavlvs  Ageminivs  Faciebaty 

This  marvelous  casket,  it  is  generally  conceded,  belongs  to  the  early 
part  of  the  sixteenth  century.  The  inscription  on  the  rim  has  given  rise 
to  a  great  deal  of  discussion  among  the  savants  of  Italy.  It  was  various- 
ly claimed  that  it  signified  a  name,  place  of  birth,  or  a  profession.  Al- 
though, in  1832,  this  casket  was  known  to  be  in  the  possession  of  the  Mar- 
quis de  Trivulci,  it  has  since  disappeared,  and  has  eluded  the  most  ear- 
nest search. 

SPHYRELATON,  OR  WROUGHT-IRON.      REPOUSSfi. 

The  ancient  art  of  working  in  iron  and  other  metals  with  the  hammer 
had  ceased  to  be  exercised  until  very  recently.  The  facility  with  which 
form  can  be  produced  by  modeling  in  clay,  and  subsequent  casting,  had 
put  aside  the  ancient  and  laborious,  but  yet  thoroughly  artistic,  method  of 
shaping  metals  with  the  hammer.  Some  of  the  most  effective  and  durable 
of  antique  -  art  work  in  wrought  iron  is  to  be  found  in  coifers,  plaques, 
and  hinges ;  in  swords,  bucklers,  and  other  arms.  This  is  an  art  which 
dates  from  the  most  classic  age.  The  Phoenicians,  Egyptians,  Greeks,  and 
Romans  used  it  upon  their  colossal  figures,  as  well  as  in  smaller  works  re- 
quiring nicer  execution.  The  recent  discoveries  of  Di  Cesnola  at  Cy23rus 
are  a  striking  evidence  of  the  extreme  antiquity  of  this  art. 

During  the  Renaissance  iron -work  reached  a  high  degree  of  perfec- 
tion. The  Italians,  Germans,  and  French  were  artistic  workmen.  Ben- 
venuto  Cellini,  who  had  successfully  learned  the  art  of  casting  from  plas- 
tic models,  could  only  criticise  the  works  wrought  in  iron  during  his  time 
with  the  remark  that,  although  the  modeling  was  excellent,  the  different 
parts  which  made  up  those  objects  of  art  were  not  compactly  nailed  and 
riveted  together. 

Among  the  objects  which,  from  the  nature  of  their  use,  were  made  of 
iron,  were  the  bucklers,  which  from  the  earliest  ages  were  used  as  weapons 
of  defense.  In  the  days  when  war  was  not  conducted  at  bullet  or  can- 
non-shot range,  and  when  men  fought  foot  to  foot  and  hand  to  hand,  the 
shield  or  buckler  was  of  vital  importance.  In  the  course  of  time  it  had 
different  shapes ;  but  in  the  sixteenth  century  it  became  round,  with  an  in- 
clination toward  an  oval.  In  the  time  of  Francis  I.,  these  pieces  of  ar- 
mor were  the  chosen  objects  upon  which  artists  exercised  their  best  gen- 
ius. The  most  exquisite  designs  were  worked  in  repousse,  raised  upon 
the  surface  of  the  buckler,  with  a  delicacy  and  grace  of  form  which  in- 
vested it  with  great  value. 

Among  rare  examples  of  this  ai-t  is  a  shield,  now  in  the  Hotel  de 


THE  ANCIENT  ART  OF  REPOUSSfi.  49 

Cluny,  repousse  and  chiseled  in  the  Italian  style  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
It  is  decorated  with  strange  and  fanciful  figures,  representing  the  combats 
of  Centaurs  and  animals.  The  centre  of  this  shield  is  ornamented  with 
figures  of  children,  and  it  has  a  sharp  projecting  pike.  This  design  is  full 
of  strength,  and  each  object  is  drawn  with  grace  and  symmetry. 


Buckler  of  the  Period  of  Henri  IL 

Perhaps  the  most  remarkable  and  well-known  specimens  of  armor 
which  have  come  to  us  from  the  artists  of  the  sixteenth  century  are 
several  now  in  the  Cabinet  des  Antiques  de  la  Bibliotheque  Royale,  and 
which  are  said  to  have  belonged  to  Francis  I.  This  armor  is  attributed 
to  Benvenuto  Cellini ;  but  it  is  said  that  if  Cellini  had  executed  so  beau- 
tiful a  work  for  the  great  French  king,  he  would  have  made  mention  of 
the  fact  in  his  memoirs. 

There  is  not  to  be  found  upon  these  pieces  of  armor  any  device  or 
other  evidence  that  they  belonged  to  the  King  of  France,  and  it  is  proba- 

4 


50  ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 

ble  they  were  trophies  of  war.  The  casque  is  surmounted  by  a  grotesque 
dragon,  the  wings  outspread,  and  the  beak  or  mouth  open.  In  the  midst 
of  the  florid  ornamentation  appear  two  crabs,  placed,  with  intention,  as 
emblems,  but  to  which  there  has  been  found  no  interpretation.  The  same 
emblem  is  found  on  the  shield,  the  central  part  of  which  has  two,  while 
two  others  are  placed  upon  the  rim.  The  ornamentation  of  these  two 
beautiful  pieces  is  in  black  iron,  chiseled  and  enriched  with  incrustations 
of  gold  upon  a  ground  of  gold.  It  is  composed  of  trophies,  satyrs,  fig- 
ures of  Cupid,  and  exquisite  arabesques  wrought  with  all  the  taste  and 
prodigality  of  the  Italians  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

Another  flne  example  of  work  in  wrought-iron  repousse  is  an  oblong 
plaque,  which  formed  a  part  of  the  decoration  of  a  piece  of  furniture.  It 
belongs  to  the  sixteenth  century,  and  represents  the  death  of  Cleopatra. 
This  work  is  a  large  medallion  of  oval  form,  within  which  is  represented 
the  above-named  subject.     The  border  contains  the  following  verse  : 

"Cum  subiit  mortis  Leges  Antouiiis  atrae 
Serpentis  morsu  sese  Cleopatra  uecavit." 

The  outside  frame  is  enriched  with  arabesques,  masks,  fruits,  flowers, 
leaves,  and  garlands.  This  work  is  in  the  wonderful  Du  Sommerard  col- 
lection. 

A  boldly  executed  piece  of  armor  in  gold  damaskeen  is  a  helmet  now 
in  the  Artillery  Museum  in  Paris.  The  origin  of  this  helmet  is  perfect- 
ly authentic.  It  came  from  the  armory  of  Henri  II.,  whose  device  and 
arms  it  bears.  The  figures  and  ornaments  in  repousse  upon  this  helmet 
are  in  the  finest  style  of  its  period. 

ENAMEL. 

The  history  of  the  origin  of  enameling  is  full  of  fascination.  It  carries 
us  back  into  the  Byzantine  period.  Philostrate,  a  writer  of  the  fourth 
century,  quotes  the  Emperor  Constantine  Porphyrogenitus  as  declaring, 
in  his  life  of  his  ancestor,  Basil  the  Macedonian,  that  people  of  that  epoch, 
in  different  parts  of  Byzantium,  painted  the  image  of  Christ  in  enamel 
upon  metals.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  this  art  flourished  in  great  brill- 
iancy in  the  East  in  the  tenth  century,  for  it  is  known  that  in  976,  when 
the  Venetian,  Osseolo,  visited  Constantinople,  he  was  filled  with  delight  and 
astonishment  at  sight  of  the  grand  altar  at  St.  Sophia.  This  altar  was  a 
magnificent  example  of  enameled  work ;  and  Osseolo  gave  an  order  for  a 
similar  one  for  Venice,  where  in  the  same  year  he  founded  the  Church 
of  St.  Mark  upon  the  model  of  the  basilica  of  Justinian.  This  work  was 
accomplished  with  the  assistance  of  Greek  artists.     Subsequently  Osseolo 


Enanieliug. 


THE  WORKS  OF  LIMOGES.  53 

went  to  France,  where  he  lived  nineteen  years,  and,  in  the  opinion  of  Du 
Sommerard,  brought  with  him  these  Greek  artists,  and  introduced  at  Li- 
moges the  art"  of  enameling. 

"  How,  otlierwise,"  writes  this  distinguished  savant,  "  can  be  explained 
the  frequent  commercial  relations  between  Venice  and  Limoges,  and  the 
appearance  of  enameled  work  during  the  ninth  century,  of  which  we  find 
no  anterior  trace  either  in  our  chronicles  or  monuments  1" 

In  this  brief  sketch  it  will  be  necessary  to  omit  any  description  of  this 
art  as  it  appeared  in  Spain  and  Germany.  In  Italy  and  France  it  seems 
to  have  found  enthusiastic  admirers  both  for  church  and  secular  uses ;  so 
that  for  a  long  while  it  took  the  place  of  bronze  and  other  metals. 

THE   WORKS    OF  LIMOGES. 

Of  all  the  industrial  art  works  of  the  Renaissance,  those  known  as  the 
"  works  of  Limoges  "  are  among  the  most  beautiful.  The  history  of  this 
famous  city,  so  rich  in  architectural  remains,  is,  as  we  have  seen,  associated 
with  the  earliest  attempts  in  the  art  of  enamel  in  France ;  and  there  is  no 
doubt  but  that  this  rare  art  became  established  in  the  workshops  of  Li- 
moges during  the  twelfth  century. 

The  Abbe  Texier,  in  his  essays  on  the  silversmiths  and  enamelers  of 
Limoges,  says:  "The  grand  abbeys  of  Limousin  were  pillaged  from  top 
to  bottom  during  the  twelfth  century  by  the  English,  who,  according  to 
Geoffroi,  took  everj'^  thing,  including  the  altar-pieces,  most  of  which  were 
enameled.  Notable  among  these  were  the  gigantic  altar  of  Grandmont 
and  tlie  coffer  of  Bourganeuf  with  its  treasure."  Notwithstanding  these 
depredations,  which  did  not  cease  until  the  sixteenth  century — notwith- 
standing all  this  destruction — in  1779  there  were  in  the  diocese  of  Limoges 
alone  more  than  two  thousand  five  hundred  chiseled  and  enameled  reli- 
quaries, not  counting  the  cups,  plates,  censers,  diptychs,  chalices,  covers  of 
books,  crosses,  and  objects  of  a  similar  character. 

Until  the  sixteenth  century  the  manufacture  of  enamels  at  Limoges 
had  been  nearly  destroyed,  or,  at  least,  forgotten,  in  the  midst  of  the  wars 
which  took  place  during  the  preceding  periods.  Francis  I.  re-established 
these  works,  and  by  his  patronage  of  this  art  brought  forward  a  number 
of  men  of  rare  genius.  Among  these  was  Leonard,  a  painter,  to  whonj 
was  given  by  his  master  the  surname  of  "  Limousin,"  in  order  to  distin- 
guish him  from  Leonardo  da  Vinci.  In  describing  the  relation  between 
Leonard  and  King  Francis,  the  term  "master"  is  not  used  in  an  artistic 
sense,  for  the  artist  received  from  the  king  the  title  of  his  "painter  and 
valet  de  chambre." 

Among  the  enamelers  of  the  sixteenth  century  whose  work  is  most 


M 


ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 


sought  after,  because  of  its  rare  perfection,  is  that  of  Pierre  Eaymond. 
The  state  collections  and  private  cabinets  possess  a  large  number  of  his 
productions. 

Of  the  painters — enamelers,  who  were  either  scholars  or  rivals  of  Leon- 
ard— J.  Courtois  was  one  who  gives  us  the  best  evidence  of  the  admirable 

art  of  the  Limoges  manufac- 
tory, of  which  he  was  at  one 
time  in  charge.  Among  the 
most  exquisite  of  the  works 
of  enamel  in  color  by  this 
artist  are  those  in  the  collec- 
tion of  M.  Carraud,  at  Paris. 
They  are  a  water-pitcher,  ba- 
sin, and  vases.  The  basin  is 
hollow,  and  longer  than  it  is 
wide.  The  subject  of  the 
decoration  represents  the  sac- 
rifice of  Iphigenia,  after  the 
composition  of  Polidore  of 
Caravaggio.  The  rim  is  com- 
posed of  arabesques,  intermin- 
gled with  fanciful  figures  of 
busts  of  men  and  women,  in- 
closed by  outlines  of  color. 
It  is  an  exquisite  composi- 
tion. The  pitcher  is  fully 
equal  to  the  basin.  The  sub- 
jects are  also  drawn  from  the 
Iphigenia  of  Caravaggio.  The  form  of  the  vase  is  open.  The  interior  is 
white  enamel. 

In  the  collection  of  Messrs.  Lebarte  and  Debruge  there  is  a  piece  of 
enameling  which  belongs  to  the  twelfth  century.  The  decoration  repre- 
sents the  legend  of  St.  John. 

This  art  of  enameling  had  for  one  of  its  discoverers  Bernard  Palissy, 
whose  life  was  remarkable  for  its  unselfish  devotion.  His  productions  are 
marvelous  as  works  of  art.  Tliey  are  distinguished  for  close  adherence  to 
natural  forms  ;  which,  however  striking  in  some  ways,  are  not  recognized 
in  these  days  of  conventionalized  objects  and  arbitrary  forms  as  character- 
izing the  best  art.  One  of  the  finest  examples  of  the  work  of  Palissy  is 
in  the  Du  Sommerard  collection.  It  is  a  large  plate  executed  in  enamel. 
It  is  covered  with  fishes,  reptiles,  Crustacea,  and  mollusks  in  the  midst  of 


Leonard  Limnusiu. 


OIRON  FAIENCE.  55 

the  water,  together  with  herbs  and  marine  plants.  This  plate  is  remark- 
able for  the  minute  execution  of  its  details,  and  also  for  the  richness  of 
the  enamel,  which  gives  life  to  these  studies  from  nature  itself. 

FAIENCE. 

The  faience  known  as  that  of  Henri  Deux,  or  Oiron,  is  among  the 
most  beautiful  and  symmetrical  of  ceramic  art.  The  piece  so  long  in  the 
collection  of  the  Count  de  Portales,  sold  in  1865  for  six  thousand  dollars, 
and  now  in  the  South  Kensington  Museum,  is  the  most  celebrated.  There 
is  also  in  existence  a  flagon,  or  vase,  of  peculiar  form.  The  handle  is  placed 
under  the  rim,  and  the  mouth  projects  from  the  body  of  the  vase.  Above 
this  part  of  the  flagon  appears  an  escutcheon  of  three  cross-bars.  The  de- 
signs in  arabesque  are  of  various  colors  upon  a  white  ground.  The  lower 
part  of  this  flagon  is  richly  decorated  with  open-work  and  a  mask  which 
rests  beneath  the  escutcheon. 

In  the  collection  of  the  South  Kensington  Museum  there  are  two  com- 
panion pieces  to  the  above.  One  is  a  candlestick  of  monumental  form, 
which  has  the  letter  H  interlaced.  This  piece  is  ornamented  with  three 
figures  of  nude  children,  who  are  seated  upon  the  round  boss  which  forms 
the  principal  part  of  the  candlestick.  Below  these  figures  there  are  three 
grotesque  masks  united  by  garlands,  which  hang  from  one  to  the  other ; 
the  garlands  are  repeated  upon  the  upper  part.  The  whole  work  is  filled 
in  with  delicate  architectural  forms  of  singular  originality  and  most  harmo- 
nious and  symmetrical  designs.  This  is  probably  one  of  the  most  com- 
plete specimens  of  the  ceramic  art  belonging  to  the  sixteenth  century. 
There  are  only  about  seventy  specimens  of  this  faience  in  existence,  con- 
sisting of  salt-cellars,  vases,  pitchers,  and  other  articles.  In  his  description 
of  these  works,  Dii  Sommerard  attributes  their  manufacture  to  the  Italians 
of  that  day ;  and  until  as  late  as  1867  the  effort  to  discover  the  origin  of 
this  ware  was  the  despair  of  collectors.  But  it  is  now  known  that  its 
manufacture  was  begun  in  the  Chateau  Oiron,  by  Cherpentier,  a  ceramist 
under  the  patronage  of  Madame  de  Hangest,  mother  of  the  grand  eeiiyer^ 
and  former  governess  of  Henri  II.  The  work  was  continued  by  the  son 
of  this  lady.  From  the  name  of  the  chateau,  the  ware  is  now  called 
"  Oiron."     Its  old  and  familiar  title  is  "  Henri  Deux  "  ware. 

OBJECTS  OF  THE  TOILET. 

Of  objects  for  the  toilet,  and  for  ornament,  either  in  secular  or  re- 
ligious uses,  the  Middle  Ages  furnished  countless  numbers,  in  every  style 
of  art.  They  originated  in  the  prolific  invention  of  this  most  suggestive 
age,  or  were  copied  from  the  beautiful  examples  of  classic  art. 


56 


ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 


An  extremely  rich  and  curious  article  of  toilet  is  in  the  cabinet  of  M. 
Soulages.  It  is  a  metallic  mirror,  which  is  inclosed  by  a  broad  frame  of 
wood,  covered  with  carved  figures,  strange  and  fanciful  creations,  and  oth- 
er ornamentation.  It  has  the  device  of  the  Dukes  of  Ferrara  (a  grenade 
on  fire),  the  legend  of  which  was  ^^Ardet  ceternum.''''  The  subjects  of  the 
design  on  the  frame  are  symbols  of  good  and  evil.  This  mirror  is  said  to 
have  belonged  to  the  notorious  Lucretia  Borgia,  wife  of  Alphonse  d'Este, 
Duke  of  Ferrara  in  1501. 


Salt-cellar.    Oiron  Faience. 

In  the  collection  at  the  Hotel  de  Cluny  are  to  be  seen  many  of  these 
charming  objects  for  the  toilet  —  among  others,  boxes,  chatelains,  pow- 
der-cases, and  hand-mirrors,  marvelously  beautiful  in  form  and  delicate  in 
execution.  Although  the  art  of  design  of  the  present  day  has  given  to 
articles  of  similar  purpose  exceeding  tastefulness  and  ingenious  fitness  for 
their  uses,  yet  often  the  reproduction  of  one  of  the  antique  forms  proves, 
by  its  great  sale,  to  have  pleased  the  popular  taste  of  the  nineteenth  centu- 
ry, as  it  did  that  of  the  sixteenth. 


MEDIEVAL  WORKS  IN  BRONZE. 


57 


BRONZES. 

Among  the  most  remarkable  M'orks  ever  executed  in  bronze  are  those 
■which  come  to  lis  from  the  Renaissance,  whicli  also  gave  birth  to  siicli 
artists  as  Ghiberti,  Andre  de  Pisa,  Jacopo  Sansovino,  and  Donatello.  Al- 
though at  this  period  bronze  was  in  general  use  in  the  manufacture  of 
smaller  articles  for  the  household  and  purposes  of  ornament,  the  linest 
examples  of  its  application  are  found  in  the  doors  and  panels  for  doors, 
and  monuments  belonging  to  the  earliest  part  of  the  Middle  Ages.  We 
i-ead  of  the  bronze  doors  of  St.  Sophia  at  Constantinople,  in  the  eleventh 
century,  which  were  executed  by  Michael  Rangabe.  Examples  of  artistic 
genius  and  mechanical  skill  in  the  use  of  bronze  during  the  following 
centuries  are  to  be  found  in  Italy,  Germany,  France,  and  Russia.     The 


Tea-pot.    Ellers  Ware. 


James  Wedgwood's  First  Tea-pot 


Cathedral  at  Mayence,  built  about  the  year  1000,  still  retains  its  gates  of 
bronze.  In  Russia,  the  basilica  of  the  twelfth  century  at  Novgorod  pre- 
sents choice  specimens  of  work  in  bronze.  In  Italy,  such  works  in  bronze 
adorn  many  of  the  cathedrals  and  public  buildings.  Among  those  which 
have  been  most  celebrated  are  the  doors  of  St.  John  of  Lateran,  executed 
in  1193  by  the  brothers  Uberti.  The  interior  door  of  Santa  Maria  de 
Fiore  at  Florence  is  covered  with  bass-reliefs  by  Lucca  della  Robbia, 
whose  pottery  has  given  him  such  splendid  reputation.  Loretta  and  Ve- 
rona have  their  cJief-cC mxivres  of  this  art ;  and  at  Pisa  remain  some  of  the 
finest  examples  of  bronze  from  the  hands  of  John  de  Douai,  better  known 
as  John  of  Bologna. 

Among  the  rare  examples  of  Italian  bronzes  of  the  sixteenth  century  is 
the  door  of  the  sacristy  of  St.  Mark  at  Venice,  which  is  the  work  of  San- 
sovino. This  door  is  divided  into  two  parts,  which  are  also  separated  into 
other  compartments,  ornamented  with  recumbent  figures.  The  decoration 
on  the  outside  frame  is  composed  of  figures  of  the  evangelists  in  differ- 


58 


ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 


ent  postures,  and  of  cliildren,  with  portraits  of  celebrated  persons.  The 
pictures  in  the  two  large  panels  represent  the  Entombment  and  Resurrec- 
tion. The  whole  of  this  design  is  executed  with  artistic  skill  and  taste. 
In  one  of  the  chapels  of  St.  Mark's  there  are  two  candelabra,  also  the  work 
of  Sansovino,  which  are  models  of  monumental  grace  and  symmetry. 
They  are  composed  of  figures  of  children,  men,  and  women,  with  garlands 
and  other  rich  decorations.  Other  examples  from  the  same  period  could 
be  given  of  artistic  work  in  bronze ;  for  the  workers  of  the  Middle  Ages 
knew  as  well  as  did  those  of  ancient  times  its  durable  qualities.     The 


Nonnau  Ware. 


Norman  Jar. 


modern  nations  have  reserved  this  metal  almost  exclusively  for  artistic 
purposes.  In  large  sculpture  of  the  human  figure  which  is  to  be  exposed 
to  the  open  air,  it  has  almost  entirely  taken  the  place  of  marble,  stone,  or 
other  materials. 


CABINET-WORK  AND  WOOD-CARVING. 

In  no  department  of  industrial  art  have  the  Middle  Ages  left  us  so 
rich  a  variety  as  in  that  of  furniture  for  the  house ;  such  as  cabinets,  ar- 
moires,  sideboards,  chairs,  tables,  coffers,  doors,  panels,  chimney-pieces,  etc. 
These  are  of  every  style,  from  the  ornate,  elaborate  Florentine  mosaic, 
with  its  nice  architectural  lines,  to  the  heavy  carved  oak,  with  rough 
forms,  of  the  North  of  France.  Every  material  possible  for  the  purpose 
seems  to  have  been  employed  for  those  articles  which  were  of  common 
use  in  the  sleeping-chamber  as  well  as  in  the  grand  saloons,  including  oak, 
walnut,  ebony,  and  other  woods ;  various  mosaics ;  ivory ;  iron,  bronze,  and 


FLORENTINE  WORK  OF  SEVENTEENTH  CENTURY.         59 

other  metals,  with  marbles  and  various  other  stones.  From  the  fifteenth 
to  the  seventeenth  century  numberless  articles  of  cabinet-work  were  pro- 
duced, which  filled  the  houses  of  all  classes,  as  well  as  the  convents, 
churches,  and  monasteries.  This  industrial  production  continued  in  West- 
ern Europe  through  succeeding  centuries  down  to  the  present  period. 
During  the  many  wars  which  from  time  to  time  devastated  these  coun- 
tries, this  combustible  material  was  especially  liable  to  destruction,  and  a 
vast  amount  of  the  rarest  carved  work  must  have  furnished  fuel  for  the 
soldiers'  camp-fires.  Notwithstanding  the  loss  thus  occasioned,  a  great 
deal  has  been  preserved  to  fill  the  museums  of  art,  and  to  add  to  the  col- 
lections of  amateurs.  Although  it  is  a  well-established  fact  that  there  are 
to-day  large  manufactories  in  many  of  the  European  cities — and,  for  that 
matter,  in  the  United  States — which  turn  out  all  kinds  of  genuine  antique 
furniture,  yet  it  is  not  so  difficult  to  obtain  curious  and  beautiful  exam- 
ples which  certainly  date  from  the  sixteenth  century. 

FLORENTINE  CABINET. 

The  most  extraordinary  example  of  Florentine  work  belonging  to  the 
seventeenth  century  is  a  cabinet  which  forms  a  part  of  the  splendid  col- 
lection of  Du  Sommerard,  and  is  now  in  the  Hotel  de  Cluny.  We  learn 
from  Du  Sommerard  that  this  cabinet  was  taken  to  Holland  in  1800  by 
an  imperial  commissioner,  who  came  from  Poland,  whither,  it  is  believed, 
he  had  followed  Maria  Louise  de  Gonzague,  wife  of  the  King  of  Poland. 
This  cabinet  is  covered  with  mosaics,  in  "  j)ietra  dura,"  representing  birds 
and  landscapes,  with  precious  stones,  pilasters  in  lapis  lazuli,  cornelian, 
feldspar,  and  labrador ;  it  has  also  bass-reliefs  of  ivory,  enamel,  silver  in 
repousse,  gold,  marquetry  of  shells,  and  paintings.  It  is  divided  into 
three  parts  with  as  many  subdivisions.  The  first  is  formed  of  shells  in- 
crusted  with  mother-of-pearl,  and  decorated  with  marbles  and  stones  of 
various  colors.  The  second  part,  which  includes  nearly  all  the  wealth  of 
decoration  of  this  sumptuous  cabinet,  is  formed  of  an  armoire  with  two 
doors.  Upon  the  interior  and  exterior  faces  of  these  two  doors,  as  well 
as  upon  the  ten  drawers  which  compose  the  interior,  are  distributed  va- 
rious precious  materials,  such  as  enamels,  ivories,  stones,  and  pictures. 
The  upper  part  of  this  cabinet,  crowning  the  whole,  is  garnished  with 
stones  and  incrustations,  upon  a  surface  of  shells,  as  is  the  rest  of  the 
work.  It  is  surmounted  by  three  figures  in  silver  and  by  two  in  "  rouge 
antique." 

Notwithstanding  this  celebrated  cabinet,  which  forms  a  luxury  of  or- 
nament passing  description,  underwent  restoration  during  the  reign  of 
Louis  XY.,  it  remains  the  most  remarkable  example  of  Florentine  work  of 


60 


ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 


the  seventeenth  century.  It  is  an  illustration  of  what  may  be  accomplished 
by  the  enthusiasm  of  the  collector.  Du  Sommerard  discovered  it  in  an 
incomplete  state,  many  of  its  rarest  parts  having  been  scattered  apparently 
beyond  reach.  With  an  eagerness,  patience,  and  knowledge  unequaled, 
after  six  years  of  labor,  he  reunited  the  lost  parts,  and  presented  to  the 
world  one  of  the  most  curious  and  valuable  specimens  of  this  branch  of 
industrial  art. 


CABINET  CARVED  BY  THE  MONKS  OF  CLAIRVAUX. 

One  of  the  most  exquisite  examples  of  wood-carving,  and  of  architect- 
ural grace  as  well,  is  a  cabinet  carved  by  the  monks  of  Clairvaux  for 
their  abbe,  toward  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century.  This  fortunately 
fell  into  the  hands  of  Du  Sommerard.     He  obtained  it  from  a  priest,  to 

whom  it  was  given  by  the  purchasers 
of  the  ancient  abbey  of  Clairvaux.  The 
priest,  with  a  holy  appreciation  of  the 
value  of  such  historical  relics,  fearing 
that  it  might  be  destroyed  if  left  to  his 
own  people,  placed  it  in  the  safe  hands 
of  Du  Sommerard.  The  great  collector 
says  of  this  cabinet  that  he  was  assured 
by  the  last  abbe  of  Clairvaux,  who  died 
not  many  years  ago,  that  this  piece  of 
furniture  had  always  been  in  the  prin- 
cipal abbatical  apartment,  and  that  it 
was  the  result  of  the  collaboration  of  a 
great  number  of  monks. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  Clair- 
vaux was  the  first  establishment  found- 
ed by  the  illustrious  St.  Bernard,  who 
received  the  aid  of  Hugues  I.,  Count  of 
Champagne,  in  this  pious  work.  At 
first  it  contained  an  humble  colony  of  twelve  monks,  which  increased  to 
seven  hundred  before  the  death  of  its  founder.  Of  all  the  abbej^s,  that  of 
Clairvaux  was  most  celebrated  for  the  perfection  of  its  illuminated  missals. 
We  are  told  by  a  Benedictine  who  visited  it  in  1708:  "In  the  cloister  of 
the  abbey  there  are  twelve  or  fifteen  small  cells,  all  alike,  where  the  monks 
were  accustomed  to  write,  and  work  upon  their  books.  This  is  why  those 
places  are  to-day  called  'escritoires.'  Above  these  cells  was  a  library- 
room,  large,  vaulted,  well  lighted,  and  filled  with  a  great  number  of  man- 
uscripts chained  to  the  wall."     While  we  have  this  curious  passage  from 


H.CATITNMo 


Decorated  Valencia  Vase. 


WOOD-CARVING  IN  THE  MIDDLE  AGES. 


61 


the  lives  of  the  monks  of  Clairvaux,  we  have  only  the  evidence  of  this 
cabinet  that  they  were  equally  artistic  and  industrious  in  the  fascinating 
occupation  of  wood-carving. 

The  stalls  in  the  cathedrals  on  the  continent  of  Europe  and  in  England 
will  be  more  familiar  to  the  general  reader  than  many  of  the  objects 
which  have  been  described.  The  architect  and  the  carver  have  exhibited 
in  these  sacred  places  the  results  of  training  and  skill.  The  stalls  of  the 
choir  in  the  Cathedral  at  Amiens  are  justly  celebrated  for  their  elegance 
and  richness  of  design  and  their  admirable  execution.  They  are  among 
the  best  works  of  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries.  The  architecture 
is  of  the  open  character,  terminating  in  pointed  columns  of  elegant  work- 
manship.    The  author  of  these  stalls  was  Arnould  Boullin. 

A  quaint  piece  of  sculpture  in  wood,  to  be  seen  at  the  present  time  in 
the  Hotel  de  Cluny,  represents  the  beheading  of  John  the  Baptist.     This 


Romano-British  Ware. 


is  an  example  of  the  German  school  of  the  fifteenth  century,  and  is  said  to 
be  in  the  style  of  Albert  Diirer.  There  are  four  figures  in  the  piece.  The 
knight,  in  the  armor  of  the  period,  having  taken  off  the  head  of  St.  John, 
obligingly  passes  it  to  an  attendant  female,  who  gives  it  to  the  queen.  The 
headsman  strikes  a  dramatic  attitude,  and  has  a  self-satisfied  smirk  upon 
his  countenance,  as  if  he  had  done  a  good  thing,  while  Herodias  does  not 
appear  to  be  altogether  satisfied  with  the  gory  gift.  Like  many  very  re- 
alistic works  of  art  of  a  dreadful  nature,  this  is  intensely  ludicrous.  Be- 
hind the  figures  stand  the  towers  of  a  castle. 

The  exterior  doors  of  St.  Maclou  at  Rouen,  belonging  to  the  fifteenth 
and  sixteenth  centuries,  have  been  the  admiration  of  every  art-lover  who 
has  had  the  happiness  of  visiting  that  city,  so  rich  in  architectural  glories. 
These  doors  are  of  incomparable  beauty,  and  are  attributed  to  Jean  Gou- 
jon,  that  distinguished  artist  who  was  at  the  same  time  sculptor,  architect, 
wood-engraver,  carver,  as  well  as  a  writer  of  great  erudition. 


62  ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 


THE  ART   OF   DESIGN  IN  THE   MIDDLE   AGES  AND  IN  THE  NINETEENTH 

CENTURY. 

There  is  a  great  temptation  yet  further  to  describe  the  arts  and  indus- 
tries of  the  Middle  Ages.  Most  of  the  objects  that  have  been  preserved, 
and  are  in  the  public  museums  and  private  collections,  possess  historical 
associations  of  an  interesting  character.  From  these,  indeed,  we  often- 
times gain  a  knowledge  of  the  tastes  and  dispositions  of  men,  which  other- 
wise might  not  be  accurately  obtained.  No  written  history,  for  example, 
could  so  fully  have  done  justice  to  the  culture  and  enthusiasm  for  art  of 
Francis  I.  as  do  the  monuments  which  mark  his  reign. 

The  objects  which  have  been  described  are  characteristic  of  the  indus- 
trial arts  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  clearly  show  that  in  some  respects  the 
art  of  design  has  not  since  been  excelled.  But  the  nineteenth  century 
has  progressed  in  a  knowledge  of  the  fitness  of  things  for  their  uses.  As 
civilization  has  advanced,  a  multitude  of  inventions  have  made  every  step 
of  human  life  more  comfortable.  I^ot  only  have  the  discoveries  of  science 
helped  to  keep  away  sickness  and  pain,  and  removed  them  more  easily 
when  they  came,  but  the  utensils  by  the  aid  of  which  food  is  prepared  for 
consumption,  the  furniture  of  the  drawing-room  and  the  sleeping-chamber, 
the  machinery  used  in  manufactures,  the  tools  of  commerce,  have  become 
more  practical  and  useful.  The  tasks  of  life  are  more  safely,  easily,  and 
rapidly  performed  in  the  nineteenth  century  than  they  were  four  or  five 
hundred  years  ago ;  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  but  the  art  of  design  has 
at  the  same  time  made  great  advancement. 

THE  TREASURES  OF  HILDESHEIM. 

To  attempt  to  give  even  a  brief  description  of  the  characteristic  feat- 
ures of  the  art  industries  prior  to  the  Middle  Ages  would  be  a  task  far 
beyond  the  purpose  of  this  book.  A  few  examples  of  the  art  of  the  period 
of  the  Roman  Republic  are  presented  by  engravings.  These  objects  of 
art  are  interesting,  both  for  their  intrinsic  excellence  and  because  of  the 
circumstance  of  their  discoveiy. 

The  treasures  of  Hildesheim,  now  in  the  Museum  of  Berlin,  take  their 
title  from  the  fact  that  they  were  found  near  the  gates  of  the  city  of  Hil- 
desheim, in  Hanover,  Germany.  A  party  of  Prussian  soldiers  were  occu- 
pied in  laying  out  the  ground  for  a  fortification.  The  place  was  full  of 
historical  interest.  Batteries  were  planted  here  when  the  city  was  be- 
sieged during  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  and  here  the  city  had  erected  its 
gibbets  of  justice.  There  was  an  ancient  tradition  that  rare  treasures  had 
been  buried  at  the  feet  of  these  instruments  of  death.     It  was  in  the  year 


RARE  TREASURES  FOUND. 


63 


1868  tliat  the  soldiers,  M'liile  digging,  came  upon  a  heap  of  objects  which 
seemed  to  have  been  buried  without  covering  or  otlier  protection.  There 
were  lifty-two  pieces — vases  and  utensils — all  made  of  silver,  most  of 
them  of  great  interest,  and  several  of  inestimable  value. 

Frangois  Lenormant,  in  the  Gazette  des  Beaux  Arts,  attributes  the  hid- 
ing of  these  treasures  to  some  of  the  barbarous  chiefs  who  had  pillaged 
the  cities  on  the  borders  of  the  Rhine,  or  in  Northern  Gaul ;  for  the  Roman 
occupation  had  not  extended  so  far  into  the  German  country  as  Hildes- 


Bomau  Drinking-cnp.— From  Hildesheim. 


64 


ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 


heim.  Besides,  these  objects  are  not  all  of  Roman  origin,  some  of  them 
bearing  evidence  of  barbarous  construction.  The  largest  of  them  is 
known  as  the  "  Roman  drinking-cup."  With  its  base,  it  weighed  forty- 
four  pounds,  as  is  learned  from  an  inscription  engraved  upon  the  interior 
of  the  vessel. 

The  most  artistic  piece  of  this  collection  is  an  elegant  dish,  the  princi- 
pal decoration  of  which  is  a  figure  of  Minerva,  seated  upon  a  rock.  The 
goddess  is  represented,  full  of  grace  and  dignity,  in  a  graceful  aspect,  as 
the  protector  of  humanity  and  the  useful  arts.  The  ornamentation  of 
the  border  which  surrounds  the  medallion  of  Minerva  is  of  palmettos,  and 
has  all  the  fine  execution  of  the  best  Greek  art. 


HOW  ENGLAND  BEGAN  ART  EDUCATION.  65 


CHAPTER  VI. 

ART  EDUCATION  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN. 

Euglisli  Plan  of  Art  Education. — Committee  of  the  Council  for  Education  seek  Informa- 
tion.— Lord  Stanley's  Letter  in  1867,  asking  Foreign  Ministers  for  Facts  with  Regard 
to  Technical  and  Art  Education. — The  South  Kensington  Museum. — Its  Prograinnie 
of  Instruction. — Table  showing  Number  of  Persons  receiving  Instruction  in  Draw- 
ing in  1873. 

Of  all  the  efforts  at  art  education  in  Europe,  that  of  Great  Britain  has 
been  most  deliberately  planned,  and  most  energetically  and  persistently 
put  in  practice  in  the  instruction  of  a  large  number  of  people.  In  En- 
gland there  is  a  separate  bureau  of  the  Government  devoted  to  Art  and 
Science  Education.  This  bureau  has  an  organization  which  reaches  out 
in  every  direction  where  it  is  desirable  to  have  art  instruction.  This 
thorough  organization  for  art  education  originated  in  the  desire  of  the 
merchants  and  statesmen  of  England  to  advance  the  commerce  of  the  na- 
tion, in  the  production  of  objects  of  art,  from  its  condition  of  inferiority 
to  that  of  France  and  Germany.  The  English  people  did  not  seem  to 
realize  the  superiority  of  the  nations  on  the  Continent,  and  especially  of 
France,  until  the  great  exposition  of  1851.  They  were  quick  enough  to 
perceive  it  then,  and  profit  by  the  examples  of  their  neighbors.  The 
English-speaking  people  are  often  praised  for  their  energy  and  executive 
capacity.  None  of  the  great  achievements  of  England  have  been  more 
surprising  than  the  work  she  has  done  within  twenty  years  past  in  the  ap- 
plication of  art  to  her  industries.  As  soon  as  she  found  out  her  short- 
comings she  went  to  w^ork  with  great  earnestness ;  Parliament  set  its 
powerful  machinery  in  operation ;  the  Committee  of  Council  for  Educa- 
tion addressed  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  of  Great  Britain  the  following 
questions : 

What  trades  are  now  being  injured  by  the  want  of  technical  educa- 
tion? 

How,  and  in  what  particular,  are  they  injured  ? 

How  .do  other  countries,  from  their  greater  attention  to  technical  in- 
struction, absorb  our  trade  ?     Give  instances,  and,  if  possible,  statistics. 

5 


66 


ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 


What  plan  of  technical  education  would  remedy  the  evil  ? 
The  replies  to  these  questions  may  be  found  in  the  Parliamentary  re- 
ports ordered  to  be  printed  by  the  House  of  Commons,  March  25th,  1868. 
They  came  from  the  associations  of  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  for  the 
United  Kingdom,  wliicli  reported  the  replies  from  the  separate  chambers 
of  Nottingham,  Kendal,  the  Staffordshire  potteries,  and  Birmingham. 
They  showed  that  there  was  little  if  any  technical  education.  Of  that 
great  industry  of  the  potteries  which  had  been  distinguished  by  the  gen- 
ius of  Wedgwood  and  Flaxman,  we  read:  "It  is  only  necessary  to  point 
out  the  numerous  cases  in  whicli  foreign  workmen  are  employed,  and  for- 
eign designs  copied,  in  most,  if  not  all,  the  principal  manufactories  of  the 
country.  -3^  *  *  In  the  pottery  districts  several  manufacturers  employ  for- 
eign workmen  as  painters 
and  designers,  and  in  one 
manufactory  a  sum  of  ten 
thousand  pounds  a  year  is 
paid  to  foreign  workmen," 
Such  was  the  character 
of  the  evidence  which  came 
from  the  Staffordshire, 
Sheffield,  Macclesfield,  and 
other  chambers  of  com- 
merce; and  the  associated 
chambers  of  commerce  for 
the  United  Kingdom  pass- 
ed a  resolution :  "  That  while  the  details  of  a  comprehensive  plan  of  tech- 
nical education  must  be  the  subject  of  minute  examination,  the  Govern- 
ment be  urged  to  direct  its  attention  at  once  to  the  systematic  training  of 
professors  of  theoretical  and  applied  science,  and  to  give  increased  assist- 
ance beyond  that  confirmed  by  the  late  minister  on  science  schools  (De- 
cember 21st,  1867),  to  all  serious  local  efforts  to  establish  and  extend  the 
teaching  of  science  and  art." 

Another  step  was  taken  on  behalf  of  technical  education,  in  a  circular 
letter  which  Lord  Stanley,  in  1867,  addressed  to  Her  Majesty's  ministers 
abroad,  requesting  answer  to  certain  questions  concerning  industrial  educa- 
tion among  other  nations.  The  replies  to  this  circular  all  went  to  show 
that  in  technical  education  France,  Belgium,  Switzerland,  Prussia,  and 
Austria  were  far  in  advance  of  Great  Britain.  It  is  needless  to  say  that 
the  United  States  was  in  no  condition  to  be  offered  as  an  example  of 
what  had  been  accomplished  by  the  application  of  art  to  the  industries  of 
the  land.     Here  and  there  she  was  able  to  compete  with  Great  Britain 


Josiuh  Wedgwood's  Cream  Ware,  painted  with  Aututnu  Leaves. 


ENGLISH  PLAN  OF  ORGANIZATION.  ,^7 

and  the  Continent  in  certain  articles  of  coarse  manufacture,  such  as  spades 
and  shovels,  axes,  nails,  sewing-machines,  some  fire-arms,  and  many  articles 
for  common  use  of  wood -work  and  hardware,  but  never  in  articles  to 
w^hich  taste  and  beauty  give  increased  value.  The  United  States  at  that 
time  had  not  given  the  subject  of  technical  education  the  least  considera- 
tion. In  order  to  gain  an  advanced  position  in  the  commerce  of  art,  pow- 
erful associations  were  formed  in  Great  Britain  for  the  development  of 
the  arts.  Schools  of  design,  libraries,  and  museums  were  multiplied  in 
every  direction.  The  most  effective  means  of  instruction,  however,  were 
those  connected  with  the  Kensington  Museum.  These  were  the  "Nation- 
al School  for  the  Training  of  Art  Masters  and  Art  Mistresses,"  and  thou- 
sands of  schools  of  design  which  were  established  throughout  the  kingdom. 


Saxou  Jug.  Saxon  Jar. 

This  work  of  teaching  was  done  with  energy  and  completeness,  so  that  the 
course  of  instruction,  hereafter  briefly  described,  reached  every  class  in  all 
the  important  towns  of  the  kingdom. 

The  machinery  by  which  the  English  have  accomplished  such  excel- 
lent results  may  be  found  in  the  following  plan  of  organization. 

In  the  official  directory,  which  contains  the  "  Regulations  for  pro- 
moting Instruction  in  Art,"  four  separate  schools  of  instruction  are  de- 
scribed, and  they  are  recorded  as  follows : 

Aid  to  elementary  day-schools. 

Aid  to  training-colleges  for  teachers. 

Aid  to  art  night-classes. 

Aid  to  schools  of  art. 

The  details  of  the  method  of  proceeding  in  each  of  these  schools  arc 
given  at  some  length  in  the  appendix,  where  it  is  seen  how  liberal  is  the 
English  Government  in  the  use  of  money  for  rewards  and  in  defraying 


68  ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 

the  expenses  of  the  schools.  The  use  of  the  word  "  aid  "  has  real  signifi- 
cance. The  Government  not  only  invites  the  student  to  come  and  be  ed- 
ucated, but  it  really  pays  him  for  coming.  In  all  the  history  of  persons 
who  have  been  generous  patrons  of  art,  or  of  beneficent  governments  pro- 
viding for  the  welfare  of  their  people,  certainly  no  system  equals  this  ef- 
fort of  Great  Britain  to  encourage  and  stimulate  art  education.  The  elab- 
orate and  thoughtful  plan  which  is  detailed  in  the  appendix  is  the  result 
of  the  experience  of  twenty  years  in  endeavoring  to  find  out  the  best  way 
to  advance  the  industrial  interests  of  that  country.  The  system  is  a  very 
complete  one  for  Great  Britain. 

One  of  its  means  of  efiiciency  is  its  centralized  power.  Yet  what  is 
easy  and  in  order  for  the  "  Royal  Committee  of  Council  on  Education  "  in 
London  is  impracticable,  well-nigh  impossible,  and  most  undesirable,  for 
any  commissioner  of  education  at  Washington.  Nor  is  the  system  of 
money  rewards  for  efiicienc}'^  possible  in  this  country.  The  public-school 
fund  is  not  likely  to  do  more  than  furnish  the  teachers,  school-room,  and 
material.  But  while  there  are  features  of  the  English  system  which  are 
not  of  the  best  method,  and  others  not  applicable  to  the  United  States,  the 
course  of  actual  instruction  is  nevertheless  admirable  and  efficient. 

Let  us  see  what  amount  of  instruction  has  been  given  from  year  to 
year.  At  the  distribution  of  prizes  at  the  South  Kensington  school  for 
work  executed  during  the  year  1874,  the  Lord  President  of  the  Council 
(the  Duke  of  Richmond)  gave  a  statement  of  the  growth  of  art  study  in 
the  country  since  1871,  from  which  it  appears  that  the  schools  in  which 
art  is  taught  have  increased  from  2100  (1871)  to  2811  (1874).  In  the  same 
three  years  the  students  of  art  have  increased  in  number  from  203,638  to 
281,400 ;  and  the  works  of  art  produced  by  the  schools  have  in  the  same 
time  increased  from  102,467  to  157,636. 

This  statement  was  probably  made  up  to  a  later  date  than  that  of  the 
annual  report  for  1873.  In  order  to  present  the  industrial  art  growth 
of  Great  Britain  in  a  yet  clearer  light,  the  following  table  is  given  on 
the  next  page,  in  which  the  great  progress  made  in  the  eighteen  years 
between  1855  and  1873  is  seen.  What  wonder  is  it  that  the  Enjjlish 
liave  excelled  the  French  in  their  favorite  field  of  art-industrial  develop- 
ment. 

Tliese  are  the  statistics  of  school  instruction  under  the  South  Kensing- 
ton scheme ;  but  who  shall  describe  that  other  powerful  influence  which 
proceeds  from  its  magnificent  museum  and  library — the  collections  of  pot- 
tery, bronzes,  and  other  objects  of  art  whose  variety  and  costliness  have 
never  before  been  excelled  ?  Not  only  the  art  industries,  but  the  social 
life,  of  England  have  been  improved  by  these  agencies. 


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70  ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

ART  EDUCATION  IN  FRANCE. 

Art  Education  in  Fi-aiice. — Schools  of  Design  in  Paris. — No  General  Programme  of  In- 
struction directed  by  the  Government  as  in  Belgium  and  Euglaud. — The  ficole  des 
Beaux  Arts. — Statistics  showiug  the  Increase  of  Art  Productions  in  England  over 
those  of  France  from  1847  to  1868. — The  Union  Centrale  of  Fine  Arts  applied  to  In- 
dustry at  Paris. — History  and  Plan  of  its  Organizatiou. — Prosper  M^rim^e  on  the 
Universal  Exposition  of  1862. — Expositions  of  the  Union  Centrale. — Novelty  anti 
Beauty  of  those  Expositions. — Expositions  of  Art  and  ludustiy  in  the  United  States. 
— Tbe  Sevres  Manufactory. 

For  many  years  past  there  has  been  in  France  no  lack  of  means  for 
art  inspiration  and  art  education.  In  other  cities  of  that  country,  as  well 
as  in  Paris,  there  are  magnificent  collections  of  pictures  and  statuary,  and 
museums  filled  with  rare  and  beautiful  works  of  art,  while  in  every  direc- 
tion may  be  found  schools  of  art.  Some  of  these  schools  are  under  the 
direct  management  of  the  Government,  like  those  of  the  ficole  des  Beaux 
Arts,  and  the  School  of  Design  in  the  Rue  I'Ecole  de  Medecine. 

Besides  these,  there  are  numerous  day  and  night  schools  subsidized 
by  the  Government,  where  both  sexes  are  taught  the  art  of  design.  Not- 
withstanding this  pecuniary  assistance  given  to  the  last-named  schools,  the 
authorities  do  not  attempt  to  direct  the  course  of  study  in  them,  as  does 
the  Government  of  Belgium  in  the  art  schools  of  that  country.  The  re- 
ports of  Government  commissioners  and  other  officials  have  strongly  con- 
demned the  use  of  badly  drawn  or  unartistic  models,  but  there  has  been  no 
oflScial  programme  creating  uniformity  of  instruction.  At  the  same  time, 
other  influences  have  been  at  work  which  have  raised  the  standards  of  in- 
struction to  the  highest  point.  Notable  among  these  has  been  the  report 
of  the  jury  of  the  "Exposition  of  Schools,"  held  in  Paris,  which  decided 
that  the  study  of  linear  drawing,  based  upon  geometry,  ought  to  be  the 
foundation  of  the  programme  of  all  academies  and  industrial  schools. 

In  1869  a  Congress  of  Art  was  held  in  Paris,  which  expressed  in  yet 
more  emphatic  terms  the  same  opinion.  It  insisted  upon  "  suppressing 
the  print,  and  founding  the  first  studies  in  drawing  upon  the  elements  of 


SYSTEM  BASED  UPON  GEOMETRY. 


71 


geometry."  From  1865  up  to  the  present  time  this  principle  has  been 
constantly  discussed.  It  has  found  among  its  most  earnest  advocates  the 
powerful  organization  known  as  the  Union  Centrale.  Thus,  while  the  art 
schools  of  Paris  have  no  uniform  standard  of  study,  they  have  generally 


Ct-^\m  1'  ■^•■><. 


Oiron  Faience. 


adopted  this  method,  which  is  based  upon  the  elements  of  geometry,  and 
which  is  sometimes  called  the  "  Hendricks  system."  Within  the  last 
few  years  the  Paris  schools  have  become  something  more  than  drawing- 
schools.  They  are  now  achieving  great  results  by  adding  the  scientific 
branch  of  the  art  of  design  to  the  artistic.  One  of  the  prizes  offered  at 
the  recent  exposition  of  the  Union  Centi-ale  was  for  the  industrial  art 
school  having  the  best  method  of  instruction.  This  prize  was  accorded 
to  the  school  of  M.  Levasseur,  of  Paris,  a  description  of  which  is  kindly 
furnished  by  an  American  gentleman  resident  in  Paris.  While  it  does 
not  give  a  detailed  programme  of  the  course  of  instruction,  it  presents  a 
charming,  life-like  picture,  which  is  more  interesting  and  intelligible : 

"  I  went  to  see  Mr.  Levasseur  on  Friday,  by  appointment.  While  I 
understood  all  he  said,  and  am  sure  he  has  a  method,  though  he  de- 
clares he  has  not,  it  will  be  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  explain  what 
that  method  is.  It  is  the  man  himself.  Perhaps  the  best  thing  I  can  do 
is  to  briefly  describe  the  school.  A  shabby-looking  building  on  a  corner 
(to  get  light),  fitted  up  plainly,  but  with  every  convenience  for  work,  is 
crowded  day  and  evening  (females  in  the  day-time,  males  in  the  evening) 


72  ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 

witli  young  people  from  all  the  industrial  classes.  I^ot  a  calling,  how- 
ever remotely  connected  with  art,  but  has  its  neophyte  there.  I  have  no 
room  to  enumerate,  but  from  the  coiffeur  of  actual  heads  up  to  the  paint- 
er of  ideal  ones,  there  they  are — and,  directing  them,  a  man  who  lives, 
I  think,  in  the  building,  existing  apparently  only  for  his  art ;  and  this 
brings  me  back  to  the  point  I  started  from — to  the  man  himself.  He  is 
the  text-book  and  the  method.  Surrounded  by  models  in  plaster,  on  pa- 
per, with  living  ones  at  his  command  (I  saw  a  class  of  thirty  girls,  from 
fourteen  years  to  twenty,  drawing  from  life),  and,  with  assistant  teachers, 
he  counts  over  four  hundred  pupils ;  he  has  more  applicants  than  room. 
Originally  his  own,  the  city  subsidized  the  school,  and  made  it  municipal. 
It  is  now  on  the  broadest  basis.  Tlie  architect,  the  engineer,  the  carpen- 
ter, the  furniture-maker,  the  decorator  of  china,  tapestry,  fans,  what  not, 
the  jeweler — all  find  appropriate  models  and  generous  instruction.  Mr. 
Levasseur  says  it  was  proposed  to  establish  separate  and  distinct  schools  of 
art  in  Paris  for  each  and  every  industry  —  over  thirty  different  schools 
would  have  resulted.  But  he,  with  many  others,  fought  the  idea,  and  it 
was  abandoned.  He  declares  that  the  principles  of  true  art  are  the  same 
wliether  applied  by  this  or  that  workman,  and  ought  to  be  taught  in  all 
their  widest  scope :  special  scliools  would  cramp  the  scholar ;  the  general 
school  expands  him.  I  said  that  Mr.  Levasseur  seemed  to  exist  only  for 
liis  art ;  besides  his  personal  he  has  a  national  pride  in  his  position,  and  a 
ribbon,  or  a  medal,  or  perhaps  the  cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honor,  is  more 
in  his  estimation  than  individual  comfort  or  emolument. 

"  Mr.  Levasseur  says  that  he  puts  every  beginner,  who  is  not  pressed  for 
time,  to  draw  the  human  face ;  but  often  his  pupils  have  a  business  in- 
terest in  flower-drawing,  or  ornamental  design  of  some  sort  which  he  is 
obliged  to  foster.  Yery  young  children  begin  with  drawing  simple  geo- 
metrical lines,  with  which  he  combines  the  elements  of  perspective."  ^  ^  ^ 

Undoubtedly  the  secret  of  the  success  of  M.  Levasseur's  school  is  in 
his  devotion  and  his  rare  personal  capacity  as  a  teacher.  A  good  method 
of  instruction  is  better  than  an  indifferent  or  bad  one ;  but  the  best  of  pro- 
grammes is  nearly  useless  unless  the  teacher  is  competent  and  enthusiastic 
in  his  work. 

In  nearly  all  the  public  schools  of  France,  especially  in  the  secondary, 
and  higher  institutions  of  learning,  drawing  forms  one  of  the  branches  of 
instruction.  In  the  methods  prescribed  for  the  special  schools  there  is  a 
full  course  of  drawing  for  each  term ;  but  it  is  only  of  late  years  that  it 
has  been  thought  necessary  to  teach  drawing  to  children  under  ten  years 
of  age.  The  action  of  Belgium  and  England  upon  art  instruction  has 
aroused  the  attention  of  the  French.     At  a  recent  distribution  of  prizes 


THE  fiCOLE  DES  BEAUX  ARTS. 


73 


at  the  National  School  of  Design  and  Mathematics,  the  Marquis  Da 
Cheunevrieres,  who  is  the  present  Minister  of  Fine  Arts,  declared  himself 
strongly  upon  this  point.  He  not  only  urged  the  introduction  of  draw- 
ing in  all  the  communal  schools,  but  he  announced  extensive  reforms  in 
the  higher  schools,  which  are  more  directly  under  the  authority  of  the 
Government.  It  has  been  only  witliin  a  short  time  that  M.  Gerard,  the 
director  of  public  schools  in  Paris,  has  made  the  teaching  of  drawing  ob- 
ligatory in  these  schools.  For  the  highest  branches  of  art  instruction, 
France  possesses  one  of  the  most  important  art  schools  in  Europe. 

THE  fiCOLE  DES  BEAUX  ARTS. 

This  is  the  well-known  "  Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts."     With  few  excep- 
tions, for  many  generations  past,  the  great  artists  of  France  have  passed 


J.  F.  Millet 


through  the  extensive  course  of  study  prescribed  at  this  school.  Names 
like  Ingres,  Delaroche,  Robert  Fleury,  Rousseau,  Millet,  Gleyre,  Delacroix, 
Decamps,  Troyon,  and  others,  are  associated  with  its  government.  Its  pro- 
fessors of  painting  and  sculpture  are  not  taken  from  the  ranks  of  incom- 


74 


ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED   TO   INDUSTRY. 


petent  or  indifferent  artists.  Onl}'-  those  who  have  attained  fame  by  their 
works  are  permitted  to  conduct  these  important  trusts,  which  at  present 
are  in  charge  of  Gerome,  Meissonier,  Cabanel,  Jules  Breton,  and  Bonnat. 

The  Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts  is  divided  into  three  sections.  These  are : 
Painting,  sculpture,  and  architecture.  To  each  of  these  there  are  special 
ateliers.  Three  of  painting,  three  of  sculpture,  and  three  of  architecture, 
besides  one  of  engraving  on  copper,  and  an  additional  atelier  for  engrav- 
ing of  medals  and  precious  stones.  The  instructors  of  the  school  are :  A 
professor  of  painting,  whose  duties  include  the  giving-out  of  programmes 


Troyon. 

for  examination  for  painting ;  and  professors  for  sculpture  and  architect- 
ure with  similar  duties. 

The  following  branches  of  instruction  each  have  a  professor:  Orna- 
mental design,  anatomy,  general  history,  mathematics,  descriptive  geom- 
etry, stereotomy,  physics  and  chemistry,  construction,  legislation,  history 
of  architecture,  decorative  art,  theory  of  architecture,  history  of  archae- 
ology, history  of  the  art  of  aesthetics. 

There  is  a  system  of  rewards  for  excellence  of  workmanship,  consisting 
of  medals,  diplomas,  etc.     The  highest  of  these  is  the  "  Prize  of  Eome," 


ENGLAND  EXCEEDS  FRANCE  IN  ART  PRODUCTS.         75 

given  in  several  grades,  for  painting,  sculpture,  architecture,  and  engrav- 
ing. This  prize  permits  the  successful  competitor  to  attend  the  French 
Academy  at  Rome,  where  he  follows  the  study  of  his  profession  from  one 
to  three  years  at  the  expense  (a  fixed  sum  of  money)  of  the  French  Gov- 
ernment. 

The  ficole  des  Beaux  Arts  is  a  costly  institution  to  the  French  Gov- 
ernment. The  subvention  for  the  year  1875  was  450,000  francs.  Upon 
the  special  authorization  of  the  director,  strangers  are  permitted  to  enter 
the  school,  and  are  not  subject  to  the  conditions  with  respect  to  age,  ap- 
plied to  native  candidates,  who  are  not  admitted  under  fifteen  nor  over 
thirty  years  of  age. 

Until  within  a  few  years,  the  superiority  of  France  in  its  art  produc- 
tions was  not  doubted  or  contested.  With  those  articles  of  industry  into 
which  art  entered,  she  filled  the  markets  of  the  world.  With  a  self-con- 
fidence peculiar  to  her  people,  she  became  careless,  and  it  was  not  until 
half  her  trade  had  escaped  her  that  France  was  conscious  of  the  loss. 

Let  us  see  the  situation  to  which  this  grand  nation  was  brought, 
through  its  lack  of  energy  and  enterprise.  The  statistics  given  below 
show  the  relations  which  France  and  England  have  from  time  to  time 
lield  in  their  commerce  in  the  industries  of  art. 

STATISTICS  SHOWING  THE  INCREASE  OF  ART  PRODUCTIONS  IN  ENGLAND 
OVER  THOSE   OF  FRANCE,  FROM  1847  TO  1868. 

France,  which  had  hitherto  taken  a  leading  position  in  artistic  indus- 
tries, began  to  fall  behind,  and  to  see  a  decrease  in  the  exportation  of  arti- 
cles which  require  art  in  their  manufacture.  We  find  that  from  1847  to 
1856  French  exportations  reached  the  sum  of  1  billion  174  million  francs. 
Of  this  sum  418  million  francs  were  for  art  industries — about  35  per  cent. 

On  the  other  hand,  from  1856  to  1868,  there  was  an  increase  of  ex- 
portations which  amounted  to  2  billion  70  million  francs.  Of  this  sum 
only  350  millions  were  for  art  industries  —  scarcely  16  per  cent.  This 
shows  in  twelve  years  a  decrease  of  more  than  one-half. 

Now  in  England,  from  1856  to  1868,  with  an  increase  in  exportations 
of  3  billion  francs  (one  billion  more  than  in  France),  the  English  products 
in  which  art  is  required  occupied  more  than  855  millions  (505  million 
more  than  in  France),  ^.  €.,  28  per  cent.  (12  per  cent,  more  than  in  France). 

Thus  we  see  that  in  France,  from  the  first  period  (1847  to  1856)  to  the 
second  (1856  to  1868),  there  was  a  decrease  in  the  exportation  of  artistic 
industrial  productions  from  35  to  16  per  cent.,  from  418  to  350  million 
francs,  while  in  England  it  was  always  28  per  cent.,  increasing  from  413 
to  855  million  francs. 


76  ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 

To  maintain  this  proportion,  in  the  presence  of  the  increase  of  its 
other  exportations,  the  sum  of  the  products  exported  which  require  art 
in  their  manufacture  must  have  increased  in  England  442  million  francs, 
while  in  France  it  decreased  Q8  millions  (from  418  to  350  millions). 

As  has  been  significantly  said  of  the  above  facts  by  an  eminent  French 
writer,  "  These  figures  have  an  eloquence  which  is  beyond  comment.  We 
leave  them  to  those  who  consider  art  as  a  fantasy  without  consequence,  as 
a  sort  of  pastime,  a  recreation  of  the  hon  ton,  which  interests  only  the  peo- 
ple of  fashion  and  the  amateurs  who  make  collections." 

THE  UNION  CENTRALE  AT  PARIS. 

This  is  an  organization  of  extended  operation  and  influence,  direct  and 
practical  in  its  effort,  most  discreet  in  its  management,  animated  by  the 
highest  purpose,  and  already  rewarded  with  the  greatest  success.  The 
Union  Centrale  should  be  the  model  for  similar  efforts  in  the  United 
States.  Its  early  history,  its  purposes,  and  a  sketch  of  what  it  has  ac- 
complished, are  given  in  these  pages,  in  the  hope  and  expectation  that 
the  establishment  of  like  organizations  in  this  country  will  exert  a  dom- 
inant influence  in  technical  education,  and  in  the  application  of  art  to 
industry. 

This  Union  Centrale  of  fine  arts  apjDlied  to  the  industries,  was  founded 
in  1864.  It  was  not  the  first  of  its  kind  in  France.  As  long  ago  as  1796, 
Emeric  David  had  the  design  of  founding  an  industrial  museum,  which, 
in  the  following  year,  was  renewed  by  Dannon  and  Mayeure.  In  1806, 
1814,  1829,  and  1834  other  efforts  were  made  for  its  establishment;  some- 
times at  Lyons  and  sometimes  at  Paris.  In  1845  a  society  of  industrial 
art  was  founded.  It  failed,  as  did  the  other  attempts ;  but  it  was  not  en- 
tirely useless,  for  it  gave  to  M.  Guichard,  who  had  been  its  secretary,  and 
also  to  some  of  his  friends,  that  practical  experience  which  afterward,  in 
a  new  attempt,  enabled  them  to  succeed.  They  understood  that  it  was 
necessary  first  to  prepare  the  minds  of  the  public,  and  then  wait  for  fa- 
vorable circumstances. 

The  proper  occasion  was  furnished  by  the  movement  which  produced 
the  grand  expositions  of  1851,  1855,  and  1862.  In  truth,  the  rapid 
strides  of  the  English  in  art  production  had  made  such  action  a  necessity, 
and  the  society,  in  1864,  was  completely  organized.  For  twenty  years 
France  had  tranquilly  rested  in  the  conceit  of  its  artistic  superiority  over 
other  nations,  having  the  conviction,  as  comfortable  as  it  was  dangerous, 
that  no  power  existed  able  to  wrest  it  from  her.  French  self-confidence 
went  so  far  as  to  advance  the  assuring  theory  that  taste  for  art  was  a  gift 
of  nature,  a  matter  of  climate  or  territory,  and  therefore  France  had  noth- 


PROGRAMME  OF  THE  UNION  CENTRALE. 


T7 


ing  better  to  do  than  to  remain  quiet.  That  there  were  clear-sighted  men 
in  France  as  early  as  1862,  may  be  seen  by  the  report  of  M.  Prosper  Meri- 
mee  on  the  Universal  Exposition  of  that  year.  He  said :  "  Since  the  Uni- 
versal Expositions  of  1851 
and  1855,  immense  progress 
has  been  manifested  through- 
out Europe,  and  while  we  do 
not  remain  stationary,  we  can 
not  dissimulate  that  the  ad- 
vance we  had  made  is  dimin- 
ished, and  that  it  may  be  ef- 
faced. In  the  midst  of  the 
successes  obtained  by  our 
manufacturers,  it  is  a  duty 
which  we  owe  to  ourselves 
to  notify  them  that  defeat  is 
possible,  and  that  it  may  be 
foreseen  in  a  not  far-distant 
future,  if  they  do  not  at  once 
make  every  effort  to  retain  a 
superiority  which  can  be  pre- 
served only  upon  condition 
of  perfecting  themselves  un- 
ceasingly. The  English  in- 
dustry in  particular,  much 
behind  from  the  art  point  of 
view  at  the  time  of  the  ex- 
hibition of  1851,  has  in  ten 
years  made  prodigious  prog- 
ress ;  and  if  it  continues  to 
march  at  the  same  step,  we 
shall  very  soon  be  left  in  the 
rear." 

After   a   while   the   mer- 
chants and  manufacturers  of 
France  became  aware  of  the 
English  superiority,  and,  thoroughly  alarmed  at  the  possible  loss  of  their 
business,  they  joined  together  in  self-defense. 

Two  fundamental  principles  composed  the  programme  of  the  Union 
Centrale :  a  principle  of  doctrine,  the  unity  of  art ;  a  principle  of  action, 
an. appeal  to  private  enterprise;  the  end,  to  labor  for  the  development  of 


Cbasable,  Sixteenth  Century. 


78  ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 

art  in  all  its  applications  to  industry.     The  Union  Centrale  held  success- 
ful expositions  in  1861  and  1863. 

THE  DIFFERENCE  BETWEEN  THE  EXPOSITION  OF  THE  UNION  CENTRALE 
AND  THE   USUAL   INDUSTRIAL  EXPOSITIONS. 

The  Exposition  of  1863  gave  to  M.  Guichard,  its  president,  the  op- 
portunity to  explain  more  clearly  the  character  and  purpose  of  this  enter- 
prise, which  was  the  work  of  himself  and  friends :  "  The  Exposition  of 
Fine  Arts  applied  to  Industry  ought  not  to  be  confounded  with  other  in 
dustrial  expositions.  What  is  the  office  of  the  juries  of  these  other  grand 
undertakings  ?  They  are  obliged  to  consider  a  multitude  of  things  equal- 
ly serious,  but  far  removed  from  the  point  of  art.  They  would  fail  in 
their  first  duties  if  they  did  not  inquire  into  the  importance  of  the  manu- 
facture, the  number  of  workmen  employed,  the  amount  of  business  done, 
the  prizes  previously  gained,  the  age  of  the  firm,  and  so  on;  and  it  is 
upon  the  results  of  all  these  facts  that  judgment  is  based. 

"With  us  nothing,  absolutely  nothing,  is  the  same.  The  beauty  of 
form,  the  happy  employment  of  color,  masterly  execution — art,  in  a  word, 
art  only.  Such  is  the  unique  evidence  invoked  by  us,  the  sole  element 
upon  which  is  founded  our  verdict.  A  solitary  chef-cfwuvreyihe  work 
of  a  new  artist,  an  unknown  workman,  is  of  more  value  to  us  than  the 
largest  and  most  important  of  productions,  the  artistic  perfection  of  which 
does  not  equal  its  commercial  value.  This  is  what  we  wish  to  have  un- 
derstood by  the  words  '  the  fine  arts  applied  to  industry.' " 

The  programme  of  this  Union  Centrale,  and  the  words  of  M.  Gui- 
chard, admirably  express  the  mission  of  those  who  aim  to  advance  the  in- 
terests of  industry  in  this  country.  It  is  a  programme  that  can  be  closely 
and  safely  imitated  in  the  great  work  yet  to  be  begun  in  America.  Some 
details  of  the  rules  of  the  society  will  give  a  clearer  idea  of  its  spirit  and 
intentions.     It  was  organized : 

"  To  encourage  in  France  the  culture  of  the  arts  which  lead  to  the 
union  of  the  beautiful  and  the  useful. 

"  To  aid  the  efforts  of  professional  men  who  are  occupied  in  the  work 
of  national  art  education. 

"  To  excite  emulation  among  artists  whose  works,  Avhile  popularizing 
the  sentiment  of  the  beautiful,  and  raising  the  public  taste,  tend  to  pre- 
serve our  art  industries,  now  menaced  by  other  countries. 

"  The  institution  comprises :  first,  a  museum,  retrospective  and  contem- 
porary ;  second,  a  library  of  ancient  and  modern  art,  where  workmen  can 
find  aid  in  all  their  researches ;  third,  special  courses  of  lectitres  and  pub- 
lic conferences,  having  relation  to  applied  art,  to  teach  the  knowledge 


PROGRAMME   OF  THE  UNION  CENTRALE.  79 

most  essential  to  the  workman  and  the  artist  who  wish  to  unite  tlie  beau- 
tiful and  the  useful ;  fourtli,  concurrence  between  the  artists  and  the  dif- 
ferent schools  of  design  in  Paris  and  the  departments ;  fifth,  expositions 
which  shall  more  particularly  present  the  means  of  studying  the  best  ap- 
plication of  art  to  industry. 

"The  committee  will  continue,  periodically,  at  Paris,  under  its  own 


Daliuaticii  of  the  Pifieenlh  Century. 

responsibility,  general  or  partial  expositions  of  the  fine  arts  applied  to  in- 
dustry. 

"  Warmly  convinced  of  the  advantages  of  the  universal  application  of 
art  to  industry,  the  committee  will  put  itself  in  communication  with  all 
those  who  in  France  sympathize  with  this  movement.  It  asks  upon  all 
occasions  the  concurrence  of  such  persons,  the  use  of  their  knowledge  and 
influence.  In  return,  it  invites  them  to  make  use  of  all  the  resources  at 
its  command.  The  committee  will  sustain,  by  all  the  means  in  its  power, 
the  foundation,  at  industrial  centres  of  the  provinces,  of  institutions  similar 


80  ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 

to  that  of  the  Union  Centrale,  and  as  soon  as  the  condition  of  the  museum 
and  library  will  permit,  it  will  aid  those  institutions  by  the  loan  of  models 
and  objects  of  art." 

Membership  in  the  society  is  obtained  by  the  annual  payment  of  thir- 
ty-six francs,  or  three  francs  per  month.  The  product  of  this  income  is 
applied  to  the  augmentation  of  the  museum  and  library.  The  head-quar- 
ters of  the  society  are  fixed  at  No.  15  Place  Vosges.  Thanks  to  dona- 
tions, the  sums  received  from  memberships,  and  otlier  sources,  a  large  li- 
brary and  museum  have  been  collected  at  the  rooms  of  the  society.  The 
library  has  been  open  to  workmen,  and  all  such  as  have  had  need  to  use 
it,  since  1864.  The  president  of  the  society  at  the  present  time  is  M. 
Edouai'd  Andre,  ancien  depute.  Its  otlier  officers  belong  to  all  the  de- 
partments of  art  and  manufacture.  They  are  architects,  manufacturers 
of  art  bronzes,  house  furniture,  house  papers,  pianos,  jewelry,  laces,  all 
kinds  of  textile  fabrics,  carpets,  and  similar  articles  of  commerce. 

Prizes  for  competition  are  offered  by  the  society.  This  competition  is 
open  to  all  aspirants  from  any  of  the  schools  in  France,  to  females  as  well 
as  to  males.  There  are  two  classes  of  competition  for  women,  and  three  for 
men.  In  each  class  there  are  a  first  and  a  second  prize  and  four  "  men- 
tions." The  first  prize  is  a  medal  of  "  vermeil"  and  100  francs  in  money. 
The  second  is  a  medal  in  silver  and  50  francs  in  money.  The  "  mentions  " 
receive  a  bronze  medal.  Besides  these,  a  grand  prize  is  given,  the  subject 
being  a  composition  of  art  applied  to  industry,  which  may  be  executed  as 
a  drawing  or  modeled  in  clay.  This  prize  is  800  francs,  which  is  to  be 
expended  in  traveling.  During  his  journey  the  successful  candidate  is  to 
make  studies  and  send  them  home,  with  full  reports  of  his  observations,  to 
the  president  of  the  Union  Centrale.  The  competition  referred  to  above 
is  a  part  of  the  plan  of  operations  of  the  society  outside  of  their  occasional 
expositions.  At  these  expositions  the  effort  to  excel  is  provoked  by  the 
offering  of  prizes  in  every  department  of  industrial  art.  This  list  is  of 
value,  as  it  shows  the  industries  in  which  the  French  are  most  earnestly 
engaged.  The  juries  which  decide  upon  tlie  relative  merit  of  articles 
are  chosen,  one  half  by  the  administration,  one  half  by  the  exhibitors. 
Among  the  jurors  for  the  exposition  of  1874  may  be  found  the  most  dis- 
tinguished men  in  the  arts  and  commerce  in  France.  The  following  are 
the  classes  for  competition : 

First  Section. — Art  applied  to  the  Decoration  of  Ildbitations. 

Architecture ;  decoration  of  cities,  public  edifices,  and  private  dwell- 
ings ;  ornamental  sculpture  in  stone  or  wood ;  carpenter's  art  work ;  mar- 
quetry ;  marble-cutting  ;  painting  for  fixed  places ;  window-curtains. 


CLASSES  FOR  COMPETITION.  81 

Second  Section. — Art  applied  to  House  Tapestry. 

Designs ;  models ;  carpets  of  all  kinds ;  furnishing  stuffs  in  silk,  wool, 
damask,  etc. ;  printed  paper ;  leather ;  figured  cartoons ;  decorative  art  of 
the  carpet  manufacturers. 

Thikd  Section. — Art  applied  to  House  Furniture. 

Designs;  models;  furniture  finished  in  various  woods,  carved,  gilt, 
lacquered,  ornamented  with  bronze;  marquetry,  faience,  or  enameled 
chairs;  music-boxes;  frames. 

Fourth  Section. — Art  applied  to  Common  Metals. 

Designs ;  models ;  art  bronzes ;  objects  for  the  ornamentation  of  dwell- 
ings, engraved,  gilt,  enameled,  glass,  etc.;  forged  iron,  cast-iron,  artistic 
iron-mongerj,  and  copper. 

Fifth  Section. — Art  applied  to  Precious  Metals. 

Designs ;  models ;  work  in  gold  and  silver  for  the  table  and  for  relig- 
ious purposes ;  jeweliy,  cameos. 

Sixth  Section. — Art  applied  to  Pottery  and  Glass-ware. 

Designs ;  models ;  decoration  in  terra  cotta ;  art  potteries ;  terra  cotta 
enameled ;  porcelain  enameled ;  painted  porcelain ;  enamels ;  glass-ware  ; 
crystals ;  mirrors ;  stained  glass ;  large  windows  for  churches. 

Seventh  Section. — Art  applied  to  Stuffs  for  Dresses  and  Clothing  for 

Domestic  Use. 

Designs;  models;  shawls;  cashmeres;  trimming;  laces;  embroideries; 
woolen  and  silk  stuffs ;  cloths  printed  and  worked,  etc. 

Eighth  Section. — Art  applied  to  Various  Articles. 

Designs;  models;  carriages;  fire-arms;  side-arms;  cutlery;  table-ware; 
small  furniture ;  articles  de  Pa,ris ;  book-binding ;  artificial  flowers ;  fans. 

Ninth  Section. — Art  applied  to  Instruction. 

Methods  of  popularizing  art ;  designs ;  models ;  engraving  upon  metals 
and  wood ;  lithography ;  chromo-lithography  ;  autograpliy  ;  heliography  ; 
photography ;  printing ;  new  ways  of  engraving ;  books  and  illustrated 
publications. 

The  good  results  which  have  developed  from  the  organization  of  the 

6 


82 


ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 


Uuion  Centrale  are  felt  all  over  France.     Among  the  most  important  lias 
been  the  formation  of  a  council  of  manufacturers  of  art  industries,  chosen 


Indian  Leather  Shoe. 


Woman's  Shoe,  India. 


Saudal,  India. 


among  the  presidents  and  vice-presidents  of  the  syndical  chambers  of  art 

industries,  whose  business  it  is  to  examine  into  all  questions  relative  to 

fabrication. 

In  the  organization  of  the  Union  Centrale  there  were  difficulties  which 

do  not  exist  in  this  country,  nor  could  they  well  be  understood  by  our 

self-acting  people.     In  France  it  has,  until  recently,  been  the  policy  of 

the  Government  that  superior  edu- 
cation, with  other  great  works  of 
a  public  character,  should  be  under 
the  authority  and  patronage  of  the 
national  Government.  The  Union 
Centrale  renounced  the  subsidies  of 
the  Government,  and  called  upon 
the  public  spirit  of  the  people  to 
support  its  efforts.      In  1865  and 

1869  successful  expositions  were  held.     Soon  after  came  the  war  with 

Germany,  when  the  association,  in  common  with  other  institutions  of  art, 

was  silent.     With  the  close  of  the 

war  came  renewed  activity  on  the 

part   of  those  who  had    already 

done  80  much  for  the  society.     It 

was  reorganized ;   M.  A  ndre  was 

made  president ;  and  M.  Guichard 

became   the    organizing   director 

of  the  Exposition  of  1874,  which 

closed  after  a  great  success. 

This  brief  history  of  the  or- 
ganization of  the  Union  Centrale 

would   not  be   complete  without 

mentioning    some    of    the    most 

characteristic  features  of  the  Exposition  of  1874 


Indian  Shoe  with  Pointed  Toe. 


It  has  been  said  that 


EXPOSITION  OF  THE  UNION  CENTRALE. 


83 


tills  society  is  conducted  under  independent  direction.     It  lias  received 
important  aid,  however,  from  the  French  Government  in  its  use  of  the 


Chinese  Shoe  for  Natural  Foot  Chinese  Shoe  for  Deformed  Foot 

superb  Palais  d'Industrie.    In  the  spacious  and  commodious  halls  of  this 


Patten. 


building,  devoted  to  art  and  industry,  the  society  had  ample  opportunity 
to  display  its  collection  of  wonderful  and  curious  things. 


Pointed  Shoe  of  the  Fifteenth  Century.  Persian  Slipper  worked  with  Seed-pearls. 

The  artists  and  manufacturers  of  objects  of  art  were  all  represented  at 


Shoe  embroidered  with  Silver. 


Sandal.— From  Poudicherry. 


84 


ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 


this  exposition. 


There  was  exhibited  the  most  perfect  work  in  bronze, 
pottery,  glass,  and  jewelry;  dec- 
oration of  walls  and  ceilings; 
book-making.  There  were  works 
in  iron  and  other  metals ;  of  en- 
graving and  lithography ;  sculpt- 
ure and  painting;  manufactures 
of  shawls,  laces,  cloths,  carpets, 
linens,  silks,  and  every  other  fab- 
ric ;  cabinet-work ;  inlaying ;  mo- 
saics; photography;  clocks  and 
watches;  artificial  flowers;  pict- 
ure-frames— these  and  several  other  objects  representing  the  many  sub- 
divisions which  go  to  make  up  the  simplest  articles  in  art  manufacture. 

A  most  valuable  and  interesting  feature  of  this  exposition  was  the  de- 
partment devoted  to  competition  for  prizes  for  superiority  in  art  instruc- 
tion. All  the  principal  art  and  industrial  schools  of  France,  including 
the  Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts,  exhibited  their  methods  of  instruction,  with 
examples  of  the  work  of  their  pupils.  M.  Levasseur,  as  has  been  already 
noted,  drew  the  first  prize  in  this  competition. 


Shoe  of  Catherine  de  Medicis. 


Shoe  of  the  Fifteenth  Century. 

A  department  of  exceeding  brilliancy  was  the  Historical  Museum  of 
Costumes.  Here  were  gathered  some  six  thousand  examples  of  costumes 
of  all  nations  and  ages.  These  costumes  were  classified  and  divided  ac- 
cording to  their  nationalities  and  the  period  in  which  they  were  worn. 
Among  these  were  the  Tiraz,  made  in  the  eleventh  century,  in  Palermo, 
by  the  skilled  Arab  prison- 
ers of  war,  for  Roger  II.,  the 
Norman  King  of  Sicily ;  rich- 
ly decorated  chasubles,  worn 
by  high  dignitaries  of  the 
Church  ;  stuffs  of  velvet  and 
gold,  worn  in  1385  by  the 
ladies  and  gentlemen  of  the 
court  of  Isabel  of  Bavaria; 

costly  robes  which  graced  the  -  shoe  of  ne  Montmorency. 


EXPOSITION  OF  1874. 


85 


forms  of  the  men  and  women  of  the  courts  of  Francis  I.,  Henry  II,  of 
England,  and  Henri  II.  of  France. 
Among  the  costumes  of  religious 
orders  of  special  interest  were  six- 
teen manikins  which  represented 
the  "  Penitents  of  Limoges,"  whose 
dresses  of  black,  white,  blue,  and 


Slaehed  Venetian  Patten.  High  Venetian  Patten. 

gray ;  whose  ehaplets,  crosses  of  prayer,  and  gonfalon,  dated  from  the  fif- 
teenth century. 

At  this  exhibition  all  classes 
of  society  seem  to  have  offered 
their  most  sacred  treasures  in 
behalf  of  art.  The  State,  the 
Church,  the  theatre,  and  the 
private  citizen  exhibited  a  gen- 
erosity which  it  would  be  hard 
to  find  outside  of  France.  Kor 
were  the  costumes  which  have 
been  noted  confined  to  gar- 
ments alone,  for  the  rare  and 
curious  collection  of  shoes  and  slippers  belonging  to  M.  Jules  Jacque- 


Gerraan  Woman's  Shoe,  Seventeenth  Ceutuiy. 


Wooden  Sandal  with  Bntton,  India. 


Painted  Open  Sandal.— From  India. 


$e  AET  EDUCATION  APPLIED   TO  INDUSTRY. 

mart  came  before  tlie  eyes  of  the  public.  By  the  side  of  the  high-heeled 
shoe,  richly  embroidered  with  silver,  which  once  contained  the  haughty 
foot  of  Catherine  de  Medicis,  was  the  black-satin  slipper  of  the  Empress 


Indian  Shoe. 


Patten  of  Corduau,  Sixteenth  Century. 


Josephine.  Here  were  the  German  shoe  "  camus  "  of  the  sixteenth  cent- 
ury, and  the  shoes  of  Henri  de  Montmorency,  decapitated  in  1632  by 
order  of  Richelieu.  The  pattens  of  the  fifteenth  century,  with  their  rough 
forms,  were  united  with  those  of  Venice  in  the  sixteenth,  richly  embroid- 
ered, and  erected  upon  a  pedestal  of  lofty  proportions.  The  form  and 
color  of  these  last-named  pattens  are  interesting,  as  marking  the  manners 
of  the  day.     From  time  to  time  the  law-makers  of  Venice  were  obliged 

to  define  the  limit  of  luxury  which 
might  be  permitted  between  ladies  of 
rank  and  those  who  made  improper 
use  of  their  charms.  The  latter  could 
wear  only  white  shoes,  while  modest 
women  had  the  monopoly  of  black. 
Several  sandals  and  slippers  from  In- 
dia bore  witness  that  the  laws  of  caste 
extended  even  to  the  foot-covering  of 
the  followers  of  Buddha.  In  some  in- 
stances they  appear  to  have  had  no 
other  covering  or  means  of  fastening 
than  a  sort  of  button,  which  was  pass- 
ed between  the  big  toe  and  its  next 
neighbor,  A  sandal  from  Pondicherry 
had  antique  shape ;  it  was  made  of  dam- 
ask and  leather,  covering  the  upper 
part  of  the  foot  and  exposing  the  toes. 
When  we  come  forward  to  the  time 
of  the  Regency  in  France,  the  shoes 
of  women  were  built  up  at  the  heel  to 
preposterous  heights.  Fashion  and  history  repeat  themselves,  for  we  find 
the  custom  of  wearing  shoes  with  high  heels  placed  under  the  hollow  of 


German  Shoes,  Sixteenth  Centnry. 


EXPOSITIONS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES.  87 

the  foot  is  nearly  as  extravagant  in  our  day  as  it  was  even  among  the 
idle  people  of  the  time  of  Louis  XVIII. 

The  department  of  costumes  was  attractive  from  its  novelty,  as  well  as 
from  the  costly  nature  of  the  articles  exhibited.  Almost  equally  interest- 
ing was  the  historical  collection  of  gloves.  The  ecclesiastical  red  glove, 
with  gold  -  embroidered  monogram,  worn  by  a  cardinal  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  was  placed  side  by  side  with  the  rough  gauntlets  of  some  warrior 
of  Flanders ;  while  there  were  many  pairs  of  delicately  made  gloves  orna- 
mented with  lace  and  gold,  all  of  them  representing  the  history  of  many 
nations  and  centuries. 

At  the  present  writing — August,  1876  —  the  fifth  exposition  of  the 
Union  Centrale  has  been  opened  at  Paris,  with  imposing  ceremonies,  by 
the  President  of  the  French  Republic.  The  brilliancy  of  the  display  of 
industrial  arts  of  France  is  said  to  surpass  any  which  have  preceded  it. 
More  than  thirty  halls  and  galleries  are  filled  with  ornamental  sculpture, 
carpets,  pottery,  and  all  those  objects  of  ancient  and  modern  industrial  art 
whose  exhibition  fulfills  the  high  aims  of  this  organization. 

EXPOSITION   OF  ART  AND  INDUSTRY  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

The  discussion  of  the  projects  and  performances  of  the  Union  Centrale 
suggests  the  desirability  of  radical  changes  and  improvements  in  the  plans 
of  the  expositions  so  generally  held  in  this  country.  Our  so-called  "  expo- 
sitions "  are  most  often  the  old-time  county  or  State  fairs,  without  their 
show  of  horses,  oxen,  and  other  cattle.  There  are  exceptions,  however, 
like  those  which  for  several  years  past  have  been  held  in  Cincinnati  and 
Chicago.  Those  at  Cincinnati  are  worthy  of  consideration,  because  they 
introduced  certain  important  features ;  because  they  have  been  regularly, 
held,  have  represented  most  of  the  great  industries  in  the  East  and  West ; 
and  because  the  service  rendered  by  their  commissioners  and  officers  is 
gratuitous. 

The  Cincinnati  Exposition  has  also  pre-eminence,  because  its  so-called 
art  department  has  presented  altogether  the  finest  annual  collections  of 
paintings  and  engravings  exhibited  in  the  United  States.  These  collec- 
tions have  always  been  of  an  international  character.  The  artists  of  Eu- 
rope and  the  United  States  have  appeared  upon  the  walls  in  harmonious 
proximity.  Although  the  number  of  paintings  exhibited  has  never  been 
large — not  over  four  hundred  at  a  time — yet  these  have  been  of  the  high- 
est character.  The  exhibition  of  1872  brought  together  an  extraordinary 
representation  of  the  works  of  the  German  painters,  especially  those  of 
Lessing,  Andreas  and  Oswald  Achenbach,  Gude,  Knaus,  Herzog,  Vautier, 
Zimmermann,  Hiibner,  Heilrath,  and  others.     The  exhibition  of  1874  was 


ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 


yet  more  remarkable.  Contributions  were  made  from  the  celebrated  col- 
lections of  J.  Taylor  Johnstone,  William  T.  Blodgett,  Marshall  O.  Rob- 
erts, Charles  O'Hara,  J.  L.  Wolf,  Parke  Godwin,  and  others,  of  New  York ; 
from  those  of  J.  L.  Claghorn,  H.  E.  Gibson,  and  Fairman  Rogers,  of  Phil- 
adelphia ;  and  from  those  of  several  gentlemen  in  Cincinnati  and  else- 
where. In  the  exhibition  of  that  year  there  were  scores  of  pictures,  any 
one  of  which  would  have  made  a  sensation  at  the  Paris  salon.  The  collec- 
tion included  the  finest  examples  from  the  pencils  of  Miiller,  Couture, 
Jules  Breton,  Meissonier,  Villegas,  Decamps,  Knaus,  Prion,  Cabanel,  Es- 
cosura,  Carl  Hoff,  Carl  Becker,  Lessing,  Achenbach,  Hugues  Merle,  Tro- 
yon,  Vautier,  Ziem,  August  Bonheur,  and  many  others.      Besides  these 

paintings,  there  was  a 
splendid  collection  of  en- 
gravings, consisting  chief- 
ly of  an  historical  series 
lent  by  J.  L.  Claghorn, 
of  Philadelphia. 

There  is  no  question 
of  the  value,  both  from 
a  commercial  and  art 
point  of  view,  of  these 
expositions.  Their  in- 
fluence is  distinctly  per- 
ceptible, and  especially 
is  that  of  the  exhibition 
of  pictures ;  yet  none  of 
these  expositions  are  con- 
ducted upon  the  admira- 
ble plan  of  the  Union 
Centrale.  We  might  not 
be  able  at  the  present  time  to  say,  with  M.  Guicliard,  that  "  The  beauty 
of  form,  the  happy  employment  of  color,  masterly  execution ;  art,  in  a 
word,  and  only  art,  is  the  unique  evidence  to  be  invoked,"  etc.  Such 
an  exposition,  framed  upon  such  a  basis,  would  certainly  be  attractive, 
and  of  the  highest  educational  value.  Unfortunately,  we  have  neither 
the  manufactures,  nor,  excepting  in  a  few  large  cities,  the  rare  private 
collections  of  antique  and  other  historical  gems  upon  which  to  draw  for 
the  desired  material ;  and  yet  we  can  borrow  wisdom  from  the  example 
of  the  Union  Centrale.  While  premiums  for  merit  are  lavishly  given 
at  our  expositions,  the  true  spirit  of  art  is  rarely  called  upon,  nor  is  it 
understood.     The  highest   expressions  of  art  are  on  the  walls  of  the 


Tile.— From  Chertsey  Abbey. 


THE  SfeVRES  MANUFACTORY.  89 

picture-gallery;  but  they  are  gathered  rather  as  an  attraction  to  bring 
money  at  the  entrance  gate  than  as  an  educational  influence.  The  space 
between  these  paintings  and  the  industrial  part  of  the  enterprise  is  vast, 
and  no  effort  is  made  to  fill  it  up.  In  the  rewards  of  merit  for  superior- 
ity in  industrial  products  there  is  no  standard  of  art.  No  steps  are  pro- 
vided by  which  the  exhibitor  or  the  visitor  can  ascend  to  the  higher  plane 
of  taste  and  culture.  The  juries  which  are  selected  to  decide  upon  the 
premiums  to  be  awarded  for  objects  of  industry  are  not,  as  they  should 
be,  required  to  give  reasons  for  their  choice,  or  to  make  critical  reports 
upon  the  objects  to  which  awards  are  given.* 

The  programme  of  the  Union  Centrale  is  full  of  suggestions,  the  adop- 
tion of  which  would  raise  the  standard  of  our  American  expositions,  and, 
at  the  same  time,  the  higher  education  it  is  their  province  to  teach. 

THE  NATIONAL  MANUFACTURE  OF  SEVRES. 
The  Sevres  manufactory  has  been  a  decided  influence  in  art  education, 
not  only  for  France,  but  for  other  nations.  Its  exquisite  work  has  been 
produced  at  the  expense  of  the  Government,  not  directly  with  a  view  to 
money  profit,  but  rather  from  the  higher  stand-point  of  art.  In  its  pro- 
ductions of  beautiful  works  of  the  finest  artists  in  ceramic  art  on  the  Con- 
tinent, it  proposes  to  rise  above  the  ordinary  commercial  enterprises  con- 
ducted for  personal  gain.  It  aspires  to  be  at  the  head  of  artistic  produc- 
tion, to  give  tone  to  public  taste,  and  thus  establish  French  pre-eminence. 
The  French  Government  has  recognized  the  need  of  reform,  even  in  the 
Sevres  manufactory,  and  a  commission  has  very  recently  been  appointed 
for  the  purpose  of  examination  into  the  general  conduct  of  this  public 
work. 

*  Since  the  above  was  written  the  Centennial  Exposition  has  been  held,  where  a  plan 
for  recommendation  of  awards,  similar  in  some  respects  to  this,  was  adopted.  A  written 
opinion  was  expected  from  an  "  individual  judge,"  which  was  to  meet  with  the  approval 
of  a  majority  of  the  judges  of  the  group  to  which  he  belonged.  While  it  was  impossible 
for  these  judges  to  make  exhaustive  reports,  yet  in  most  cases  they  gave  jnst  and  valua- 
ble criticisms,  which  met  with  the  approval  of  their  companions.  The  great  error,  how- 
ever, of  this  plan  at  the  Centennial  Exposition  was,  that  it  was  expected  also  to  apply  to 
works  of  fine  art  purely,  such  as  paintings  and  sculpture.  It  was  fonnd  to  be  impossi- 
ble for  any  two  persons  to  agree  in  their  opinion  of  a  work  of  art,  while  in  the  expres- 
sion of  approval  they  could  unite  upon  a  general  terra  like  that  of  "  artistic  excellence." 
So  the  judges  to  whom  were  intrusted  the  classes  for  painting  and  sculpture  agi'eed  in 
their  recommendation  for  award  to  use  only  the  phrase  "  for  artistic  excellence."  The 
judges  upon  paintings  made  the  distinction  of  classifying  the  pictures  as  follows :  1.  His- 
torical, Religious,  Poetical,  and  Allegorical ;  2.  Genre ;  3.  Landscape ;  4.  Portrait ;  5.  An- 
imal and  Still-life. 


90 


ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 


This  commission,  through  one  of  its  members,  M.Yiollet  le  Due,  a  gen- 
tleman highly  distinguished  in  the  world  of  art,  has  made  a  report  which 
is  an  invaluable  addition  to  the  literature  of  ceramic  art.     This  report  is 


The  Kaphael  aud  Foiuaiiuii  Plate. 

too  long  to  be  reproduced  in  these  pages.     It  is  divided  into  several, chap- 
ters, as  follows : 

I.  Report  of  the  examination  of  the  products  of  the  manufactory, 
with  critical  remarks. 
II.  The  end  proposed  by  the  manufactory. 

III.  Science  and  art  involved. 

IV.  Theory  of  the  ceramic  art ;  its  form  and  decoration. 

V.  Education  of  artists ;  instruction  in  the  art  of  decoration. 
VI.  Price  of  Sevres  ware. 
VII.  Organization  of  a  museum  of  Sevres  ware. 
VIII.  Management ;  general  questions. 

IX.  Conclusion. 
Under  the  second  article,  which  discusses  the  "  end  proposed,"  a  list  is 
given  of  various  articles  to  be  manufactured.     It  discusses  the  best  forms 
and  styles  for  all  of  these.     After  calling  attention  to  the  superior  style 


M.  VIOLLET  LE  DUC'S  SUGGESTIONS.  91 

and  colors  of  Chinese  and  Japanese  decorations,  it  makes  the  following 
resume : 

Suppress  the  pastes  of  color,  replacing  them  with  colored  enamel  made 
transparent  by  intense  heat. 

Create  for  these  kinds  of  transparent  colored  enamels  an  order  of  vases, 
where  beauty  of  shape,  engraving,  sculpture,  and  high-relief  shall  form  all 
the  decoration. 

For  the  decoration  of  white  vases,  replace  the  glazing  with  tinted  en- 
amel, and  transform  a  part  of  the  colors  of  the  paint  by  substantial  enam- 
el, both  transparent  and  opaque,  limiting  the  number  of  shades  of  color. 

Create  a  porcelain  which  can  be  reglazed  with  background  colors  at 
half  heat. 

Try  to  obtain  the  flaming  Chinese  red. 

Develop,  by  serious  appeals,  personal  effort. 

After  discussing  some  defects  in  the  management  of  the  Sevres  manu- 
facture, M.  Yiollet  le  Due  suggests  the  following  reform : 

In  the  first  place,  it  is  necessary  to  systematize  the  education  of  the  art- 
ists. It  is  necessary  to  indicate  to  the  artists  now  employed  in  the  works, 
and  those  who  desire  to  be  employed,  the  steps  to  be  taken  for  that  spe- 
cial education  which  is  required  of  them.  It  is  necessary  that  these  art- 
ists shall  pursue  the  general  studies  of  art  education,  as  well  as  special 
studies,  in  order  to  develop  the  following  qualities : 

The  purity,  beauty,  and  grace  of  Greek  art. 

The  security  and  vigor  of  Etruscan  art. 

The  brilliancy  and  originality  of  Persian  art. 

The  infinite  variety,  the  marvelous  coloring  of  Chinese  art. 

The  striking  effects  of  decoration  in  Japanese  art. 

The  grace  and  ingenious  combinations  of  Arabian  art. 

The  abundance  and  richness  of  Italian  art. 

The  delicate  grace  of  the  arabesques  of  Rouen,  Nevers,  and  Delft. 

The  noble  elegance  and  the  distinction  of  the  old  Sevres  of  Louis 
XVI. 

M.  VioUet  le  Due  offers  in  this  report  not  only  the  above  learned  and 
significant  advice,  but  many  other  theories  and  suggestions  which  are  of 
great  value  in  the  production  of  ceramic  art 


y2  ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

BELGIUM. 

Art  Education  in  Belgium. — The  Congress  of  Art  in  1868. — Demand  for  Improved  Meth- 
ods of  Art  Education  based  upon  the  Principles  of  Geometry. — Decree  of  King  Leo- 
pold appointing  a  Commission  to  investigate  and  report  upon  the  Condition  of 
Schools  and  Academies  in  Belgium. — Report  of  Commissioners. — Programme  of  Art 
Education  adopted  by  the  Government,  and  put  in  Practice  in  the  Schools. — Excel- 
lence of  this  Programme. 

It  has,  until  very  recently,  been  supposed  that  the  system  of  art  edu- 
cation in  Belgium  was  more  complete  than  that  of  any  other  plan  pursued 
by  the  European  nations.  Her  academies  of  fine  arts,  schools  of  design, 
and  especially  her  industrial  schools,  have  been  cited  as  models  for  imita- 
tion, because  of  their  admirable  organization  and  advanced  method  of  in- 
struction. It  appears  that,  excellent  as  all  this  was,  the  Belgians  them- 
selves became  aware  of  their  deficiencies,  and  within  a  few  years  have 
taken  vigorous  and  thorough  means  for  a  radical  reformation  in  their  sys- 
tem of  instniction.  The  agitation  of  this  reform  began  by  the  convo- 
cation in  1868  of  an  industrial  congress  at  Brussels,  for  the  discussion  of 
the  best  methods  to  be  introduced  into  the  schools  for  instruction  in  the 
art  of  design. 

Among  the  results  of  the  proceedings  of  this  congress  was  the  adop- 
tion of  a  resolution  that  it  was  necessary  to  introduce  the  study  of  draw- 
ing into  the  communal  schools.  In  the  language  of  M.  de  Lajolais,  a 
member  of  the  congress  from  Paris,  "  Instruction  should  be  given  at  first 
to  children,  in  knowledge  of  form,  then  they  should  be  accustomed  to  the 
habit  of  following  and  understanding  the  transformation  of  exact  form 
into  ornamentation.  The  study  of  drawing,  in  the  first  instance,  develops 
the  intelligence  of  the  child  in  teaching  him  how  to  see.  To  see  with  the 
eye  of  a  designer  is  to  create  the  sense  of  exact  observation  and  of  analy- 
sis; and  these  results  can  be  attained  by  a  series  of  attractive  exercises." 

Another  important  conclusion  which  came  from  the  discussions  of  this 
congress  was  the  "  necessity  for  the  radical  reorganization  of  the  element- 
ary teaching  of  the  fine  arts  by  the  substitution,  for  the  routine  methods 


ART  EDUCATION  IN  BELGIUM. 


93 


in  use,  of  a  uniform  and  rational  mode,  based  upon  scientific  principles, 
which  are  the  essence  of  art  itself;  to  suppress  the  common  prints  and 
engravings  now  used  as  models ;  to  base  the  study  of  drawing  upon  the 
elementary  principles  of  geometry." 

Following  up  the  work  of  this  congress,  in  1869,  M.  Pirmez,  Minister 
of  the  Interior,  addressed  a  circular  to  the  governors  of  the  provinces,  call- 


Mirror-case  enameled  with  Precions  Stones.    Period  of  Henri  III. 

Gustave  de  Rothschild. 


Collection  of  Madame  laBaronue 


ing  for  reports  of  the  condition  of  the  schools  in  their  districts,  with  an 
inventory  of  the  models  in  use.  Yery  many  of  the  art  and  industrial 
schools  throughout  the  kingdom  were  largely  sustained  by  subventions 
from  the  National  Government.  On  July  10th,  1869,  a  decree  was  issued 
by  King  Leopold  which  declared,  among  other  articles,  that  these  subven- 
tions should  hereafter  be  conditional : 

1st.  Upon  the  approval  of  the  programme  of  instruction,  rules,  etc. 


94  ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 

2d.  Inspection. 

3d.  Participation  in  the  general  examination  and  the  expositions  or- 
ganized by  the  Government. 

The  effect  of  this  decree  was — by  persuasion  more  than  authority — ^to 
place  all  the  schools  under  a  uniform  system  of  instruction,  and  subjec- 
tion to  the  central  authority.  The  Government  chose  as  inspectors  two 
artists,  long  associated  with  this  branch  of  instruction,  and  who  had  spe- 
cially signalized  tliemselves  in  the  congress  referred  to  above.  These 
were  M.  Canned,  Director  of  the  Academy  Royal  of  Fine  Arts  at 
Ghent,  who  was  delegated  to  inspect  the  academies  and  schools  of  design 
of  the  t-jvo  Flanders,  and  M.  Taeye,  Director  of  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts 
at  Louvain,  who  was  delegated  to  inspect  similar  establishments  in  the 
other  parts  of  the  country.  These  gentlemen  were  furnished  with  all  au- 
thority, and  formulas  were  issued  covering  all  the  information  desired. 
These  were  comprised  under  several  questions  referring  to  the  condition 
of  the  schools,  the  form  of  instruction,  and  the  personnel  of  the  teach- 
ers. After  close  and  thorough  inspection  the  delegates  made  exhaustive 
reports  of  the  condition  of  the  scliools.  These  reports  showed  the  neces- 
sity of  great  reform  and  changes,  both  in  the  methods  of  and  models  for 
instruction.  A  programme  in  accordance  with  the  principles  suggested 
by  the  congress,  as  above  noted,  was  elaborated  by  the  inspecting  dele- 
gates. This  programme  has  been  adopted  by  nearly  all  the  schools  in  the 
kingdom.  It  gave,  as  the  foundation  of  instruction  in  the  fine  arts,  the 
study  of  linear  drawing,  based  upon  geometry,  substituting  the  model  in 
relief,  for  the  print. 

In  1871,  M.  Kervyn  de  Lettenhove,  Minister  of  the  Interior,  addressed 
a  circular  letter  to  the  provincial  inspectors  of  primary  instruction,  in 
which  he  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  Government  of  Great  Brit- 
ain and  the  city  of  Paris  had  introduced  the  study  of  drawing  in  the  pub- 
lic schools.  The  minister  advanced  cogent  arguments  for  the  adoption  of 
a  similar  coui-se  in  Belgium.  He  says :  "  Instruction  in  drawing  ought 
then  to  be  given  in  all  the  normal  schools  by  professors  capable  of  teach- 
ing. In  order  to  attain  this  result,  the  Government  will  not  hesitate  to 
make  remunerations  larger  than  those  now  accorded." 

After  asking  for  replies  to  several  questions  with  regard  to  the  "  capa- 
bilities of  teachers,"  the  "  methods  in  use,"  and  the  "  material  on  hand," 
etc.,  he  declares:  "The  Government,  in  the  task  it  has  undertaken,  counts 
upon  the  concurrence  and  support  of  the  communes  and  provinces.  It 
is  a  question  of  national  interest,  since  its  principal  object  is  the  prog- 
ress of  industry  and  the  development  of  the  artistic  sentiment  of  the 
countiy." 


PROGRAMME  OF  ART  EDUCATION.  96 

In  the  attempt  to  carry  out  the  objects  of  this  circular,  the  delegates, 
Messrs.  Canned  and  Taeye,  were  instructed  to  visit  and  inspect  these  nor- 
mal schools.  The  result  of  this  inspection  was  a  report  which  urged  the 
adoption,  in  the  primary  schools,  of  a  system  of  education  similar  to  that 
already  recommended  for  the  academies  of  art.  Numerous  other  sugges- 
tions were  also  made  looking  to  the  more  complete  organization  of  these 
schools.  The  reports  of  Messrs.  Canned  and  Taeye  are  among  the  most 
valuable  contributions  yet  made  to  the  literature  of  art  instruction.  These 
gentlemen  possessed  rare  qualifications  for  the  duty  imposed  upon  them, 
and  their  opportunities  for  observation  and  comparison  embraced  a  large 
number  of  superior  schools.  The  conclusions  to  which  they  arrived  are 
undoubtedly  important  and  correct,  and  ought  to  be  carefully  considered 
by  those  who  are  organizing  art  schools  in  the  United  States. 

The  following  is  the  programme  adopted  by  Messrs.  Canned  and  Taeye : 

PROGRAMME  OF  COURSE  OF  INSTRUCTION  FOR  AN  ACADEMY  OR 

SCHOOL  OF  DESIGN. 

Elementary  Instruction. 

First  Degree. 

Geometrical  drawing,  drawing  at  sight  and  by  aid  of  instruments ;  prin- 
ciples of  projection  and  perspective. 

Second  Division. 
Artistic  Instruction. 

1.  Linear  drawing,  one  and  two  hours  each  day,  of  plain  geometrical 
figures  and  some  of  their  combinations. 

2.  Combination  of  polygons. 

3.  Application  of  geometrical  figures  to  ornament. 

4.  Exercises  of  drawing  from  memory. 

5.  Exhibition  of  the  fundamental  relations  of  colors  with  extremely 
elemental  applications  in  simple  tints. 

Scientific  Instruction. 
Two  lessons  of  one  hour  each  week — arithmetic. 

First  Division. 
Artistic  Instruction. 

1.  Principles  of  projection. 

2.  Elements  of  perspective. 


96  ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 

3.  Designs  after  nature,  represented  by  solids. 

4.  Application  of  geometrical  figures  to  ornamentation. 

5.  Exercises  in  drawing  from  memory. 

6.  First  ideas  of  harmony  of  color,  with  applications  of  polychrome  in 
plain  tints  and  by  juxtaposition. 

Scientific  Instruction. 
Two  hours  each  week — arithmetic. 

Second  Degree. 

General  principles  of  design  from  objects  in  relief ;  light  and  shade ; 
drawing  from  fragments  of  architecture,  from  ornamentation  and  busts. 

Second  Division. 
Artistic  Instruction. 

One  and  a  half  to  two  hours  each  day. 

1.  Study  of  shaded  drawing  from  solids. 

2.  Progressive  studies  of  shaded  drawing  from  fragments  of  architect- 
ure modeled  upon  the  monuments  of  antiquity,  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and 
the  Renaissance. 

3.  Exercises  in  drawing  from  memory. 

First  Division. 

One  and  a  half  to  two  hours  each  day. 

1.  Studies  of  shaded  drawing  of  fragments  of  ornaments  after  casts 
from  the  sculpture  of  antiquity,  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  tlie  Renais- 
sance. 

2.  Studies  of  shaded  drawing  from  fragments  of  heads,  casts  from  the 
chef-d'ceuvres  of  antique  sculpture. 

3.  Studies  of  shaded  drawing  of  masks  after  the  casts  of  chef-d'ceuvres 
of  antique  sculpture. 

4.  Drawing  exercises  from  memory. 

Scientific  Instruction. 

Four  lessons  of  one  hour  each  week. 

1.  Continuation  of  the  study  of  projection. 

2.  Study  of  linear  perspective. 

3.  Elements  of  algebra. 

4.  Elementary  geometry. 

N.B. — The  second  degree  should  constitute  the  course  of  drawing  for 


PROGRAMME  OF  ART  EDUCATION.  97 

the  second  year  of  studies  for  the  normal  schools,  and  form  the  pro- 
gramme for  instruction  in  drawing  for  the  intermediate  schools. 

Third  Degree. 
Study  of  different  styles  of  ornament  and  busts. 

Artistic  Instruction. 

One  and  a  half  to  two  hours  each  day. 

1.  Shaded  drawing  of  ornaments  of  different  styles,  after  casts  from 
the  chef-WoRuvres  of  antiquity,  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  the  Renaissance. 

2.  Studies  of  drawings  of  busts  after  the  casts  of  the  chef-d^o&imres  of 
antique  sculpture. 

3.  Drawing  exercises  from  memory. 

Scientific  Instruction. 
Six  lessons  of  one  hour  each  week. 

1.  Continuation  of  the  study  of  projections. 

2.  Studj'^  of  perspective ;  direct  outlines  and  reflected  shadows. 

3.  Architectural  nomenclature. 

4.  Elements  of  algebra. 

5.  Geometry. 

6.  Proportions  of  the  head  placed  in  their  relation  to  the  human  body ; 
anatomy ;  osteology  and  myology  of  the  human  head. 

At  this  point  the  programme  of  art  instruction  is  enlarged,  or  rather 
separates  toward  those  studies  which  concern  the  different  occupations  the 
pupil  may  wish  to  follow.  This  programme  embraces  painting,  sculpture, 
and  architecture.  Now  that  we  have  given  a  brief  sketch  of  the  history 
and  programme  of  art  instruction  in  Belgium,  it  will  be  interesting  to 
note  some  few  facts  with  regard  to  the  number  of  schools  and  pupils  in 
this  little  kingdom. 

In  1870  there  were  66  academies  and  schools  of  design,  and  17  in- 
dustrial schools.  The  total  cost  of  supporting  these  schools  was  about 
$100,000,  which  was  borne  by  the  State,  the  provinces,  and  the  com- 
munes— much  the  larger  portion  by  the  latter.  In  1872  the  number  of 
professors  was  315,  the  number  of  pupils  11,158. 

Of  the  750,000  children  in  Belgium  of  the  school  age,  17,000  were 
members  of  intermediate  schools,  colleges,  and  athenaeums,  of  which  near- 
ly 590,000  were  in  the  primary  schools ;  only  11,158  were  in  the  acade- 
mies and  schools  of  design,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  most  of  the 
children  in  the  primary  schools  were  destined  to  pursue  occupations  for 
which  a  knowledge  of  design  is  absolutely  indispensable.     This  was  the 

7 


98 


ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 


Hie  from  Chertsey  Abbey. 

state  of  affairs  in  1872.  At  the  present  writing,  1876,  the  adoption  of  the 
programme  framed  by  Messrs.  Canneel  and  Taeye  has  already  brought 
about  a  marked  change.  The  entire  population  of  Belgium  is  gradually 
acquiring  a  knowledge  of  drawing  and  technology  which  will  result  in 
artistic  and  intellectual  development. 


INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOLS  IN  GERMANY.  99 


CHAPTEK  IX. 

ART  EDUCATION  IN  PRUSSIA  AND   BAVARIA. 

Art  Education  in  Prussia  and  Bavaria. — General  Survey  of  Plan  of  Industrial  Schools  in 
Prussia.  —  Schools  of  Higher  Instruction. — The  Trade  Schools  in  Bavaria. — Eoyal 
Industrial  School  in  Nuremberg.  —  Trade  Schools  in  Nuremberg  as  an  Example  of 
Others  in  Bavaria. 

An  investigation  of  the  means  of  education  in  Prussia  and  Bavaria  re- 
veals a  system  far-reaching  and  complete  in  each  of  its  departments.  Kot 
only  in  the  common  schools  are  taught  all  the  studies  customary  in  our 
own,  with  the  addition  of  drawing,  but  technical  schools  are  established 
which  give  instruction  in  the  special  knowledge  required  for  all  the  arts 
and  trades  respectively.  All  important  trades,  like  those  of  the  weaver, 
dyer,  mason,  carpenter,  potter,  and  so  on,  have  schools  which  teach  the 
scientific  as  well  as  the  practical  knowledge  necessary  in  such  occupations. 
The  institutions  for  education  in  the  higher  branches  of  the  arts  and  sci- 
ences are  equally  exhaustive  in  their  programmes.  In  all  of  these,  draw- 
ing and  design  are  carefully  taught. 

An  idea  of  some  of  the  provisions  for  technical  instruction  may  be  ob- 
tained from  the  general  survey  of  the  plan  of  industrial  schools  in  Prussia, 
given  in  the  table  on  the  next  page. 

All  of  these  schools  embrace  art  education  in  one  or  another  form. 

In  the  JEvening,  Sunday,  and  Perfecting  schools  the  following  are 
taught :  architectural,  machine,  free-hand,  and  geometrical  drawing  (fun- 
damental proportion  doctrine) ;  modeling  in  clay,  wax,  wood,  etc. 

In  the  Building  schools,  architectural  and  free-hand  drawing,  and 
modeling  in  clay.  For  the  middle  grade — First  Course:  Four  lessons 
of  about  one  hour  each  week  are  given  in — 1.  Drawing;  2.  Architec- 
tural drawing ;  3.  Machine  drawing,  twelve  lessons  in  all,  and  one  hour 
to  modeling.  Second  Course :  Ten  lessons  to  drawing,  and  two  to  mod- 
eling. The  other  establishments  in  the  middle  grade  are  similar  to 
the  above. 

In  the  higher  technical  schools,  like  the  Gewerbe  Academy  at  Berlin, 


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ROYAL  SCHOOL  OF  ART  AT  NUREMBERG. 


101 


Tile  Decoration.— From  Crudeu's  ChapeL 

there  are  lectures  upon  descriptive  geometry,  and  the  application  of  it  to 
perspective,  construction  of  shadows,  drawing,  and  modeling. 

In  what  is  known  as  the  divisional  department,  there  are  taught :  prac- 
tice in  plans  for  parts  of  machines,  in  plans  of  power -machinery,  in 
plans  of  machine  and  factory  grounds,  in  plans  and  drawings  of  such  ar- 
tistic forms  as  can  be  used  for  iron  when  wrought,  drawing  of  vessels 
and  parts  of  vessels ;  art  of  ship-building. 

BAVARIA. 

In  Bavaria,  besides  many  schools  for  trade  and  industry,  like  those  al- 
ready described  in  Prussia,  there  are  several  schools  which  have  a  more 
direct  influence  in  the  effort  to  unite  art  with  industry.  The  Roj^al 
School  of  Art  at  Nuremberg  is  well  known  for  its  special  aim  in  that  di- 
rection, and  its  plan  of  instruction  has  served  as  a  model  for  many  others. 
There  could  not  be  a  better  example  of  the  use  of  art  instiiiction  than 
that  offered  by  this  ancient  city,  which  almost  has  the  monopoly  of  the 
trade  in  certain  articles  of  commerce,  such  as  the  Nuremberg  toys,  which 


102  ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 

are  known  the  world  over.  In  Nuremberg  the  influence  of  the  art  schools 
upon  the  workshop  is  direct.  Artistic  grace  and  curious  invention  exist 
in  the  latter,  because  of  the  training  and  education  given  in  the  former. 
The  conditions  which  have  made  Nuremberg  a  prosperous  city  may  exist 
almost  anywhere  in  the  United  States,  if  the  attempt  be  systematically 
and  patiently  made.  The  following  is  the  programme  of  instruction  at 
the  Royal  Industrial  School  in  Nuremberg,  adopted  in  November,  1869 : 

1.  Ornamental  drawing,  preparatory  class,  {a)  After  ornamental  mod- 
els, twelve  hours  weekly,  {h)  Exercises  in  the  drawing  of  surface  orna- 
ments, six  hours  weekly. 

2.  Drawing  from  the  antique,  twenty-four  hours  weekly. 

3.  {a)  Drawing  from  living  models,  groups  of  figures  and  drapery, 
twelve  hours  weekly,  {b)  Drawing  of  heads,  twelve  hours  weekly,  {c) 
Execution  of  cartoons,  paintings  on  glass,  etc. 

Technical  School. 

FIRST   COUKSE. 

First  Term  (of  six  months). — Education  of  the  eye  and  hand  by  the 
drawing  of  lines  and  geometrical  figures  ;  full-size  drawing  of  bodies  with 
plane  surfaces ;  explanation  of  the  faculty  of  sight,  and  the  first  principles 
of  perspective.  Linear  drawing  without  instruments  is  combined  with 
free-hand  drawing. 

Second  Term. — Continuation  of  free-hand  drawing ;  drawing  of  sim- 
ple ornaments,  from  pictures  fastened  on  tlie  walls,  or  from  slightly  re- 
lieved or  intersected  objects ;  linear  drawing  with  the  aid  of  square,  and 
mathematical  instruments ;  division,  measuring,  and  transfer  of  right  lines, 
angles,  and  figures ;  construction,  gradation,  and  subdivision  of  scales. 

SECOND   COURSE. 

Drawing  of  figures  in  relief ;  drawing  of  compound  ornaments,  from 
"  plastic  "  {plastischen)  models ;  the  proportion  of  the  human  head  and  its 
parts  in  firm,  simple  outlines,  from  pictures  fastened  on  the  walls ;  exer- 
cises in  the  construction  of  regular  curved  lines;  architectural  details; 
projections  of  simple  surfaces  and  plane  circumscribed  contours ;  relief - 
drawing,  after  simple  "  plastic  "  objects  in  different  proportions  as  to  size. 

THIRD   COURSE. 

Continuation  of  the  exercises  in  free-hand  drawing,  curvilinear  objects, 
drawing  of  animals  and  plants — so  far  as  applicable  in  ornaments — with 
light  shading  to  mark  the  form ;  explanation  of  the  manner  of  represent- 
ing style  /  drawing  of  the  human  body  and  its  proportions  in  outlines ; 


INDUSTEIAL  SCHOOLS  IN  BAVARIA.  103 

linear  drawing ;  continuation  of  exercises  in  the  drawing  of  projected  fig- 
ures, with  reference  to  simple  machines  and  models ;  the  (five)  orders  of 
architecture ;  industrial  ornamentations  and  profiles — if  possible,  in  natu- 
ral size — after  models ;  sketching  from  nature ;  exercises  in  India  ink ; 
designs  in  intersection ;  relief  -  drawing,  after  pictures  of  simple  forms 
from  the  antique. 

AgricTiltTiral  School. 

FIKST   COUKSE. 

First  Term. — Training  of  the  eye  and  hand  in  the  drawing  of  lines, 
geometrical  figures,  and  simple  ornamental  forms,  from  large  pictures  fast- 
ened on  the  walls ;  drawing  from  correspondingly  large  bodies  with  plane 
surfaces ;  explanation  of  the  act  of  seeing,  and  the  first  elements  of  per- 
spective. 

Second  Term.  —  Linear  drawing,  with  the  aid  of  square  and  instru- 
ments; division  into  spaces;  measuring  and  transfer  of  straight  lines, 
plane  angles,  and  figures;  construction  and  division  of  scales;  exercises 
in  the  drawing  of  simple  geometrical  bodies  in  outlines,  and  in  various 
positions ;  the  principles  of  projection. 

SECOND   COURSE. 

Exercises  in  drawing  of  details  of  architecture,  and  especially  arrange- 
ments of  agricultural  buildings,  after  models  and  original  designs ;  draw- 
ing of  simple  agricultural  implements ;  instruction  in  the  designing  of 
maps,  and  division  of  land  into  sections,  intended  for  various  agricultural 
purposes  {Culturpldnen). 

THIRD   COURSE. 

Exercises  in  the  drawing  of  whole  buildings  after  models  on  a  dimin- 
ished or  enlarged  scale ;  sketches  of  buildings  in  elevation  and  in  profile ; 
drawing  of  agricultural  implements  and  machines,  after  original  designs. 

Polytechnic  School  (Real  G-yinnasiuin). 

FIRST   COURSE. 

Free-hand  drawing ;  exercises  in  the  drawing  of  straight  lines,  and  the 
formation  of  geometrical  figures  out  of  these  lines ;  drawing  of  bodies 
with  plane  surfaces,  accompanied  by  explanations  of  the  faculty  of  sight, 
and  the  first  elements  of  perspective  with  reference  to  single  figures  and 
groups  of  figures ;  exercises  in  the  drawing  of  curved  lines,  and  the  for- 
mation of  simple  ornaments  out  of  these  lines;  drawing  of  symmetrical 


104  ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 

ornaments  and  implements,  from  pictures  fastened  on  the  walls,  and  from 
slightly  relieved  plaster  casts  of  antique  forms  of  art. 

SECOND   COURSE. 

Free-hand  drawing ;  division  and  relations  of  different  parts  of  the  hu- 
man body,  from  pictures  on  the  walls ;  foreshortening  of  single  parts  in 
different  positions ;  the  form  of  the  human  body  in  different  movements ; 
richer  ornaments,  round  and  plane,  in  outlines ;  linear  drawing ;  exercises 
with  rule,  square,  and  compasses,  by  dottings  or  figures  ;  explanation  of 
the  principles  of  projection ;  exercises  in  the  delineation  of  simple  bodies 
in  projection ;  measuring  and  reduction  of  models  of  bodies,  and  their 
projection  according  to  various  positions. 

THIKD   COUESE. 

Free-hand  drawing ;  practice  in  the  art  of  shading  in  its  simplest  form 
— at  first  from  plane-surface  ornaments,  afterward  from  round;  heads  in 
different  positions ;  hands  and  feet,  after  easy  models ;  ornaments  of  dif- 
ferent epochs  of  art  in  connection  with  architectural  details ;  linear  draw- 
ing ;  measuring  of  compound  models  of  bodies  with  plane  surfaces,  and 
their  projection,  by  the  application  of  geometrical  rules,  on  an  enlarged 
or  reduced  scale,  according  to  position ;  relief -drawing  ;  projection  of  or- 
namental details  and  of  entire  ornaments — at  first  after  solid^  then  after 
plane  models  on  an  enlarged  or  diminished  scale. 

FOURTH   COURSE. 

Free-hand  drawing ;  drawing  of  animals  and  plants,  with  close  regard 
to  foreshortening  and  oblique  positions ;  explanation  of  style  and  its  mode 
of  presentation  ;  drawing  of  figures  after  plane  models ;  ornamentation  in 
conjunction  with  the  human  form,  and  forms  of  animals ;  linear  drawing ; 
projections  of  bodies  with  curvilinear  surfaces  and  their  interjections; 
drawing  of  the  orders  of  architecture ;  exercises  in  linear  perspective  and 
shading  of  outlines ;  construction  of  models ;  execution  of  forms  of  crys- 
tals and  their  transitions,  in  pasteboard,  after  original  designs,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  rules  of  descriptive  geometry. 

In  the  scheme  of  instruction  of  the  I^uremberg  school  there  are  the 
combination  of  free-hand  and  instruniental  drawing,  and  the  application 
of  geometrical  forms  to  ornamentation.  But  the  method  at  Nuremberg 
yet  retains  the  practice  of  copying  from  the  print.  This  feature  has 
been,  as  we  have  seen,  positively  condemned  and  abolished  in  France  and 
Belgium. 


INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOLS  IN  NUREMBERG. 


105 


The  trade-school  at  Nuremberg  may  serve  as  an  example  of  the  rest 
in  Bavaria.     First,  there  are  here  three  different  trade-schools : 

1.  The  district  {Kreis)  trade-school. 

2.  The  Sunday  school  for  artisans. 

3.  The  elementary  drawing-school. 

The  first  has  the  aim  of  affording  instruction  to  persons  who  require 
for  the  intelligent  pursuit  of  their  several  callings  a  knowledge  of  math- 
ematics, of  natural  philosophy,  and 
facility  in  drawing  and  modeling,  or 
to  such  as  wish  to  devote  themselves 
to  the  technical  service  of  the  State. 
It  also  serves  as  preparatory  to  the 
polytechnic  school.  The  instruction 
embraces,  in  a  course  of  three  years, 
religion,  German  and  French  lan- 
guages, liistory,  geography,  element- 
ary mathematics,  physics,  theoretic- 
al and  practical  chemistry,  mechan- 
ics, technology,  free-hand  and  linear 
drawing,  modeling  in  clay  and  wax. 
The  first  instruction  is  according  to 
Wolff's  principles  of  rational  in- 
struction in  drawing ;  the  more  ad- 
vanced from  large  drawings  and  sol- 
id objects.  In  all  the  classes  there 
are  from  seven  to  eight  hours  for 
drawing  weekly. 

The  Sunday  school  for  artisans 
gives  instruction  to  apprentices  and 
journeymen  in  drawing,  modeling, 
engraving,  physics,  arithmetic,  geom- 
etry, and  chemistry.  The  instruc- 
tion in  drawing,  in  three  courses,  be- 
gins with  free-hand  drawing  according  to  Wolff's  system  ;  then  follow  the 
drawing  of  ornaments,  vases,  etc.,  in  outline,  with  reference  to  the  trade 
of  the  pupil ;  geometric  drawing,  and  drawing  from  bass-reliefs ;  finally, 
in  the  last  course,  special  drawing.     This  is  divided  into  four  sections : 

{a)  For  builders ;  (b)  for  joiners ;  (c)  for  turners ;  {d)  for  workers  at  va- 
rious trades. 

The  elementary  drawing-school  is  for  those  boys  who  are  still  attend- 
ing the  popular  school,  and  who  wish  later  to  engage  in  a  trade,  after 


Pitcher  decorated  by  Bernard  Palissy. 


106 


AET  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 


which  they  enter  into  the  trade-school.    In  two  courses,  drawing  and  mod- 
eling alone  are  taught. 

It  is  deserving  of  mention  that  the  establishments  in  Nuremberg  pos- 
sess a  library,  out  of  which  works  of  general  utility  and  helles-lettres  are 
lent  to  diligent  pupils.  It  thus  gives  an  opportunity  of  rewarding  good 
behavior,  and  is  also  calculated  to  impart  much  information  which  the 
school  does  not  teach.    A  bad  choice  of  books  is  in  this  way  prevented. 


ART  AND  INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOLS  IN  AUSTRIA.  107 


CHAPTER  X. 

AUSTRIA. 

Art  Education  in  Austria. — Trade-schools  established  and  conducted  by  the  Provincial 
Authorities,  and  not  by  the  Central  Government. — The  Vienna  Exposition  of  1873. 
— Schools  of  Design  and  Art  applied  to  Industry  in  Vienna. — Academy  of  Plastic 
Arts. — School  of  Fine  Arts  applied  to  Industry. — School  of  Design  and  of  Modeling 
for  Art  and  Industry. — Public  School  of  Design  and  Industry. — Schools  for  Builders, 
Masons  and  Stone-cutters,  Carpenters,  and  Spinners. 

There  are  in  Austria  trade  and  industrial  schools  of  a  character  simi- 
lar to  those  described  in  other  parts  of  Germany.  These  schools,  however, 
are  not  established  or  directed  by  the  Central  Government.  Their  con- 
duct seems  to  be  left  to  the  action  of  the  several  provincial  authorities,  so 
that  careful  and  complete  data  about  them  are  not  easily  to  be  obtained. 

In  the  city  of  Vienna  are  several  institutions  devoted  to  instruction  in 
the  industrial  arts.  The  magnificent  exposition  of  1873  grew  out  of  the 
demand  of  the  Austrian  people  for  knowledge  of  what  other  nations  were 
doing  in  the  great  industries  and  the  fine  arts.  This  wonderful  exhibition 
has  stimulated  the  productive  powers  of  this  people,  and  Austria  bids  fair 
to  hold  equal  ground  with  her  neighbors.  In  the  city  of  Vienna  there  are 
many  schools  admirably  organized  and  conducted.  The  especial  purpose 
of  these  schools,  which  are  described  below,  is  to  give  instruction  in  the 
application  of  art  to  industry.  Some  of  these,  although  of  comparatively 
recent  existence,  exert  great  influence  for  usefulness. 

VIENNA. 
THE    SCHOOLS   OF   DESIGN   AND   OF   ART   APPLIED   TO   INDUSTRY. 

In  the  capital  of  Austria,  schools  in  general,  and  those  of  design  in 
particular,  are  numerous.  The  latter,  divided  into  four  principal  classes, 
are  : 

1.  Academy  of  Plastic  Arts. 

2.  School  of  Fine  Arts  applied  to  Industry. 

3.  School  of  Design  and  of  Modeling  for  Art  and  Industry. 

4.  Public  School  of  Design  and  Industry. 


108 


ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 


1.  Academy  of  Plastic  Arts. — This  academy  was  founded,  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  eighteenth  century,  by  Leopold  I.  It  was  reorganized 
in  1850,  and  transformed  into  a  school  of  line  arts.  In  it  they  teach 
painting,  sculpture,  architecture,  engraving,  and  lithography.  The^^  also 
teach  anatomy,  general  history,  the  history  of  art,  and  all  the  courses,  spe- 
cial and  auxiliary,  for  instruction  in  architecture. 

The  sums  annually  appropriated  to  the  academy  amount  to  85,000 
florins,  and  are  thus  divided :  3000  florins  for  the  library ;  4000  florins  for 
different  models ;  1000  florins  for  the  journeys  of  scholars  in  the  interest 

of  their  studies ;  3000  florins  for 
four  purses  of  travel,  to  be  used 
only  by  those  who  have  drawn 
prizes;  500  florins  for  the  mu- 
seum of  casts.  This  gives  a  to- 
tal of  11,500  florins.  Besides 
the  above,  the  academy  dispenses 
18,000  florins,  taken  from  the  re- 
serve fund,  and  it  gives  11,000 
florins  annually  in  purses  and 
prizes.  The  admission  fees  bring 
1200  florins. 

The  number  of  scholars  is 
from  one  hundred  and  ninety  to 
two  hundred.  The  excess  of 
sums  not  used  is  distributed  be- 
tween the  reserve  fund,  general 
expenses  of  administration,  en- 
tertainment of  professors,  repairs 
of  buildings,  etc. 

Vase  of  the  Ferrara  Manufactory.  2.   ScllOol    of   Fine    AHs    ap- 

plied to  Industry. — This  school,  excellently  situated  (in  the  buildings  of 
the  museum  of  art  and  industry),  is  divided  into  a  school  for  prepara- 
tion, and  three  special  schools,  for  architecture,  sculpture,  design,  and 
j)ainting. 

(a)  Preparatory  School. — This  school  has  for  its  object  to  furnish  pu- 
pils with  that  knowledge  required  for  each  special  school,  and  also  to  give 
them  a  certain  familiarity  and  facility  in  the  art  of  design.  To  be  admit- 
ted to  this  school  it  is  necessary  to  have  flnished  a  course  of  study  in  the 
preparatory  division  of  a  gymnasium.  The  candidate  should  be  not  less 
than  fourteen  years  old,  and  possessed  of  the  preliminary  knowledge  of 
the  art  of  design.     The  length  of  the  term  of  study  for  the  preparatory 


ART  SCHOOLS  IN  VIENNA.  109 

school  is  two  years.  There  is  no  examination  at  its  expiration.  The  fees 
are  ten  florins  annually,  besides  an  admission  fee  of  two  florins. 

(b)  Special  Schools. — These  are  distinguished  from  the  schools  of  fine 
arts  because  they  have  the  exclusive  object  of  instruction  in  the  applica- 
tion of  art  to  industry.  It  is  the  equivalent  of  the  Special  School  of  De- 
sign in  the  Rue  de  I'Ecole  de  Mddecine,  at  Paris. 

The  course  of  instruction  in  these  schools  comprises  architecture  and 
architectural  design ;  design  after  the  models  of  different  epochs ;  paint- 
ing and  drawing  of  the  head ;  ornaments  and  flowers ;  modeling  and  wood- 
carving.  They  also  teach  perspective,  shaded  drawing,  anatomy,  different 
styles  of  architecture,  the  history  of  art  and  industry,  the  study  of  color, 
and  its  combinations.  The  fee  for  these  special  schools  is  fixed  at  eight- 
een florins.  The  term  of  study  is  two  years.  Since  1874  they  have  estab- 
lished a  course  of  study  for  the  male  and  female  teachers.  The  number 
of  professors  and  assistants  is  fixed  at  twelve;  one  of  the  professors  be- 
ing director. 

3.  School  of  Design  and  Modeling  for  Art  and  Industry. — This  school 
is  of  recent  organization  (1865).  It  comprises  several  classes.  Each  day 
of  the  week  there  is  a  day  class,  in  which  the  scholars  learn  to  design  and 
model ;  with  a  Sunday  class,  morning  and  night,  for  those  who,  occupied 
in  the  workshops,  are  not  able  to  attend  the  school  during  the  week-days. 
Each  evening  there  is  a  class  in  industrial  design  for  children,  and  an- 
other for  adults.  There  are  also  a  night  class  for  industrial  design 
with  regard  to  construction,  and  two  classes  for  decorative  painting,  one 
of  which  is  oral;  the  other  at  night  puts  in  practice  the  lesson  of  the 
morning. 

4.  Public  School  of  Design  and  Industry. — In  this  school,  whicli  has 
both  day  and  night  classes,  are  taught  mathematics,  free-hand  drawing, 
and  design  for  the  construction  of  machines. 

Besides  this  school,  there  is  in  Vienna  an  industrial  school  of  a  higher 
order,  wliich  has  for  its  object  the  education  of  master-builders  and  sub- 
masters,  in  which  instruction  is  comprised  in  two  classes : 

1st.  A  preparatory  class.  For  admission  to  this  class  one  must  be  six- 
teen years  old,  and  possessed  of  the  knowledge  which  is  acquired  in  an 
elementary  school.  Once  admitted,  the  students  are  taught  good  penman- 
ship, the  German  language,  construction,  architectural  design,  ornament, 
and  modeling. 

2d.  In  the  second  course,  the  German  language,  arithmetic,  algebra, 
plane  and  descriptive  geometry,  architecture,  ornamentation,  and  mod- 
eling. 

3d.  In  the  third  course  the  same  studies  are  pursued,  but  more  pro- 


110  ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 

foundly ;  besides  these,  natural  liistory  and  the  materials  of  construction 
are  taught. 

In  the  final  classes  the  pupils  are  occupied  with  book-keeping ;  algebra ; 
terrestrial  geometry ;  analytical  geometry ;  trigonometry ;  natural  history 
applied  to  the  arts  and  trades ;  architecture ;  the  study  of  plans,  estimates, 
and  specifications ;  and  modeling.  The  term  of  tuition  is  fixed  for  the 
first  two  courses  at  twenty-five  florins ;  for  the  third,  thirty  florins ;  for 
the  fourth,  thirty-five  florins.  In  addition,  the  scholars  pay  two  florins 
admission  fee.  Besides  this  superior  school,  there  are  three  secondary 
schools : 

The  School  for  Masons  and  Stone-cutters. — This  school  came  into  ex- 
istence in  1873  ;  it  was  founded  by  an  association  of  masons  and  stone- 
cutters. Gratuitous  instruction  is  given  twice  a  week,  on  Sunday  morn- 
ing and  night. 

The  School  of  Design  for  Manufacturing  am,d  Spinning. — This  teach- 
es the  art  of  design  for  fabrics,  and  the  management  of  machines  and 
looms  for  the  spinning  and  weaving  of  stuffs.  The  school  has  about  one 
hundred  and  twenty-five  pupils. 

The  School  of  Design  for  Carpenters  has  existed  since  1854,  and  is 
devoted  to  practical  instruction  in  design  and  modeling  for  the  work  of 
carpenters.  It  has  three  distinct  divisions  —  a  day  course  and  a  night 
course  which  are  held  during  the  winter,  with  a  third  course  on  Sunday 
during  summer  and  winter. 

It  will  be  seen  by  the  above  list  that  the  schools  of  design  are  nu- 
merous in  Vienna,  and  that  tlieir  instruction  is  peculiarly  practical,  each 
school  seeking  to  reach  the  pupil  through  that  teaching  which  applies  di- 
rectly to  the  needs  of  his  trade  or  occupation.  It  ought  to  be  added  here 
that  special  and  intelligent  care  is  given  in  some  of  these  schools  to  in- 
struction in  building,  construction,  and  architecture.  The  result  has  been 
that  in  a  few  years  Vienna  has  doubled  the  number  of  her  beautiful  mon- 
uments, and  that  her  architecture  has  made  great  progress. 

Besides  the  schools  noted  above,  there  are  in  Vienna  many  societies  de- 
voted to  similar  objects.  The  splendid  museums  and  fine  collection  of 
objects  of  art  are  free  to  the  use  of  industrial  artisans. 


TECHNICAL  EDUCATION  IN  SWITZEKLAND.  Ill 


CHAPTER  XL 

SWITZERLAND. 

Art  Education  in  Switzerland.  —  Thorough  Result  of  Compulsory  System  of  Education 
in  Common  Schools.  —  Government  does  not  favor  Technical  Education  in  Public 
or  Special  Schools. — Private  Technical  Schools  at  Lausanne ;  at  St.  Imier,  for  Watch- 
makers ;  at  Brienz,  for  Wood-carvers ;  at  Trogen,  for  Weavers. 

The  Swiss  people  have  not  given  that  attention  to  technical  education 
which  has  exercised  such  a  powerful  influence  in  other  parts  of  Europe. 
The  system  of  general  education  in  Switzerland  is  complete,  and  is  prose- 
cuted with  astonishing  enthusiasm  and  earnestness.  For  many  years  pri- 
mary instruction  has  been  compulsory.  An  idea  of  the  thorough  methods 
of  elementary  training  adopted  may  be  gathered  from  the  fact,  that  oat  of 
413,209  children  composing  the  legal  school  population  in  1860,  no  less 
than  397,538  were  in  the  83liools  in  1865,  and  this  after  subtraction  of  all 
the  children  debarred  by  mental  or  physical  causes,  and  those  taught  in 
the  middle  and  higher  public  and  private  establishments. 

It  is  not  the  policy  of  the  Swiss  Government  to  establish  technical  or 
industrial  schools.  Mr.  Rumbold,  an  eminent  authority  of  that  country, 
writing  upon  this  subject,  says :  "  Technical  instruction,  strictly  so  called, 
for  the  working-classes  is  little  known,  and  still  less  believed  in,  in  Switz- 
erland. 

"What  is  believed  in,  and  what  is  most  conscientiously  carried  out 
in  Switzerland,  is  thorough  general  education — education  for  the  masses, 
reaching  down  to,  and  purifying,  as  it  were,  the  lowest  depths  of  society, 
and  not,  as  in  some  countries,  leaving  them  to  form  in  their  stagnation  so 
unsound  and  impure  a  foundation  as  to  cause  the  whole  superstructure  to 
be  rotten  and  insecure.  To  raise  each  individual  member  of  the  commu- 
nity up  to  a  given  standard,  and,  having  thus  far  developed  him,  to  leave 
him  to  work  out  the  rest  by  his  own  faculties,  and  by  the  help  of  the  nat- 
ural gifts  and  aptitudes  Providence  may  have  bestowed  upon  him — such 
seems  to  be  the  simple  sum  total  of  the  Swiss  philosophy  of  instruction 


112  ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 

for  the  people,  and  it  leaves  little  room  for  any  special  or  teclinical  educa- 
tion, properly  so  called." 

There  are,  nevertheless,  schools  for  technical  instruction,  several  of 
which  are  sustained  by  private  means.     Among  these  are : 

A  private  school  at  Lausanne,  with  the  title  of  "  Ecole  Sp^ciale  de  la 
Suisse  Fran9aise  pour  I'Industrie,  les  Travaux  Publics  et  les  Constructions 
Civiles,"  founded  in  1853. 

A  school  for  watch-makers  at  St.  Imier,  in  the  canton  of  Bern,  founded 
in  1865. 

A  school  of  design  for  the  promotion  of  carving  in  wood,  founded  by 
private  individuals  at  Brienz. 

A  private  school  for  weavers  ("  Ecole  de  Tissage,"  or  "  Webschule  ") 
at  Trogen,  in  the  canton  of  Appenzell  Ausser-Rlioden. 

The  statement  of  Mr.  Rumbold,  which  is  quoted  above,  has  force,  from 
the  fact  that  Switzerland  exports  every  year  an  amount  of  products  suffi- 
cient to  pay  for  all  her  importations.  It  proves,  at  any  rate,  the  value  of 
popular  education  in  making  the  people  industrious  and  useful.  How 
much  more  this  sturdy  Republic  might  accomplish,  if  her  people  had  in- 
struction in  the  art  of  design,  is  a  question  of  great  interest. 


INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOLS  IN  ITALY.  113 


CHAPTER  XII. 

ITALY. 

Art  Education  in  Italy. — Not  the  Public  Policy  to  give  Art  Education  in  tbe  Public 
Schools. — No  General  System  of  Ait  Education. — It  is  confined  to  Particular  Indus- 
tries.— Schools  for  Wood-carving  in  Florence. — Schools  for  Art  Manufactures,  etc.,  at 
Savona. — Schools  of  Design  and  of  Sculpture  applied  to  Ornamentation  at  Serravez- 
za.  —  Schools  in  Ornamental  Design  at  Bologna,  Milan,  Bergamo,  Modena,  Brescia, 
Como,  Naples,  Rome,  Venice,  and  many  other  Cities. 

The  industrial  arts  in  Italy  follow  the  great  traditions  of  that  coun- 
try. Italy  does  not,  like  England  and  Belgium,  favor  general  education 
in  art ;  but  she  does  hope  by  the  establishment  of  schools  of  industrial  art 
to  renew  and  enlarge  those  special  industries  for  which  she  has  been  cele- 
brated. The  manufacture  of  glass ;  the  rare  carvings ;  the  wonderful  Flor- 
entine and  Roman  mosaics ;  the  ornamental  sculpture  in  bronze  and  mar- 
ble ;  the  work  of  goldsmiths,  jewelers,  and  cabinet-makers — all  of  these  have 
distinguished  the  genius  of  Italy.  To  make  great  sculptors  and  painters, 
to  educate  skilled  workmen  in  these  industries,  is  the  pride  and  eifort  of 
Italy  at  the  present  time.  It  is  true  that  by  these  special  efforts  certain 
interests  are  fostered  to  a  high  point  of  perfection,  at  the  expense  of  that 
general  art  education  which  would  give  life  to  other  manufactures,  and 
which  is  the  substantial  sustenance  of  art  itself.  The  greater  number  of 
these  schools  were,  according  to  "L'  Italia  Economica"  of  1873,  created  un- 
der the  influence  of  the  considerations  which  have  been  described.  They 
are  as  follows : 

Florence. — The  school  of  sculpture  in  wood  was  founded  by  a  private 
society  on  the  29tli  of  September,  1868.  Four  professors  have  charge  of 
this  school,  which  numbered,  in  1871-'T2,  78  pupils ;  the  expenses  amount 
to  3000  francs.  The  Ministry  of  Agriculture,  of  Commerce,  and  of  In- 
dustry, and  the  Municipal  Government,  each  furnish  a  subsidy  to  this 
school. 

Savona. — School  of  art  and  manufacture,  department  of  furniture  and 
porcelain,  founded  the  15th  of  August,  1871.  Seven  professors;  69  pupils. 
Expenses,  15,000  francs,  of  which  one-third  is  paid  by  the  State. 


114 


ART  EDUCATION   APPLIED  TO   INDUSTRY. 


Serravezza. — School  of  design  and  of  sculpture  applied  to  ornamenta- 
tion, 19th  of  December,  1869.  One  professor;  36  pupils.  Expenses,  2000 
francs,  paid  bj  the  town. 

Sesto  Florentino. — School  of  art  and  manufacture,  department  for  dec- 
orative and  ceramic  art,  9th  of  March,  1873.  Three  professors.  Expenses, 
3000  francs,  half  furnished  bj  the  State. 

Venice.  —  School  of  arts  applied  to  industry,  1st  of  Eebruarj,  1873. 
Six  professors ;  103  pupils.     Expenses  not  yet  fixed. 

It  is  also  stated  by  the  "Annuario  della  Instruzione  Pubblica"  that 
schools  of  design  of  more  or  less  importance  are  established  at  Bassano, 
Brescia,  Brisinghella,  Castanzaro,  Codogno,  Faenza,  Murano,  Pavia,  and 
Pietrasanta. 


Faenza  Fruit-dish,  ornamented  with  Amorini,  Trophies,  and  Arabesques. 

This  is  the  condition  of  art  education  in  Italy ;  but  it  is  scarcely  prob- 
able that  she  will  be  willing  to  confine  herself  to  a  restricted  field.  De- 
pending upon  France  and  England  for  almost  all  articles  of  comfort  or 
luxury,  she  will  gradually  attempt  to  produce  them  herself,  and  thus 
bridge  over  the  gulf  which  has  swallowed  so  much  of  her  wealth.     It  is 


INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOLS  IN  ITALY.  115 

doubtless  in  view  of  the  necessity  for  general  instruction,  that  measures 
of  a  more  liberal  character  have  been  taken ;  in  pai'ticular,  the  establish- 
ment of  classes  in  ornamental  design  at  the  "  Instituti  Tecnici ;"  also  in  the 
following  towns:  Ancona,  Bergamo,  Bologna,  Brescia,  Cagliari,  Catania, 
Corao,  Cremona,  Cuneo,  Forli,  Genoa,  Girgenti,  Jesi,  Livorno,  Messina, 
Milan,  Naples,  Palermo,  Pavia,  Pesaro,  Piacenza,  Port  Maurice,  Keggio 
d'  Emilia,  Rome,  Sassari,  Sondrio,  Teramo,  Terni,  Turin,  Udiue,  Venice,  Vi- 
cenzo,  and  Viterbo.  The  salaries  of  professors  employed  in  these  branches 
vary  from  1200  to  1800  francs.  At  Pavia  and  Rome  they  receive  2200 
francs ;  at  Turin,  where  the  course  comprises,  besides  drawing,  carving  in 
wood  and  sculpture,  4000  francs. 

Witli  regard  to  the  academies  of  fine  arts,  thirteen  of  them  are  main- 
tained by  the  Government,  viz. :  those  of  Bologna,  Brescia,  Carrara,  Flor- 
ence, Lucca,  Massa,  Milan,  Modena,  Naples,  Parma,  Reggio  d'  Emilia, 
Rome,  Turin,  and  Yenice. 

The  entire  expense  of  these  amounted  in  the  year  1872-73  to  700,201 
francs,  of  which  362,620 
francs  were  paid  to  the  pro- 
fessors (the  highest  salaries, 
4000  francs,  at  Milan  and 
Turin). 

Tlie  school  at  Milan  has 
the  largest  number  of  pupils, 
1160.  Its  prosperity  is  due 
to  the  instruction  given  in 
industrial  design.  Then 
come  Turin,  394;  Naples, 
357;  Rome,  290;  Modena,  289  ;  Bologna,  255;  Florence,  205;  Massa,  70. 

In  Florence  the  number  of  pupils  in  the  class  in  ornamentation  in- 
creased from  7  in  1861  to  45  in  1873. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  academic  year  1872-73,  3705  pupils  at- 
tended these  different  institutions.  They  were  divided  as  follows :  class 
in  ornamentation,  1949  ;  drawing  the  figure,  1015 ;  architecture,  650 ;  per- 
spective, 315;  landscape,  216;  painting,  136  ;  sculpture,  106. 

To  complete  the  list,  there  are  still  to  mention  the  academies  of  Car- 
rara, Bergamo  ;  the  Academia  Ligustica  di  Belle  Arti  at  Genoa ;  the 
Stabilimento  Fadini  at  Lovera ;  the  College  of  Fine  Arts  at  Messina, 
Palermo,  and  at  Perugia ;  the  Stabilimento  Gozzola  di  Belle  Arti  at  Pia- 
cenza ;  the  Royal  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  at  Pisa ;  the  Academy  of  Fine 
Arts  at  Ravenna;  the  Royal  Institute  at  Sienna  the  Institute  of  Fine 
Arts  at  Urbino  ;  and,  finally,  the  Academy  of  St.  Luke  in  Rome,  which 


Roman  Bowl  of  Samiau  Ware. 


116  ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 

is  now  a  free  institution.  If  there  are  included  tlie  schools  which,  with- 
out being  especially  devoted  to  art,  still  give  instruction  in  branches  re- 
lating to  it — such  as  the  Academy  of  Letters,  Science,  and  Art,  of  Arezzo, 
the  Athenseum  of  Science,  Letters,  and  Arts,  at  Bassano,  etc. — it  will  be 
necessary  to  admit  that,  for  what  is  attempted,  in  no  country  is  there 
found  such  numerous  means  of  instruction  as  in  Italy.  In  order,  how- 
ever, to  obtain  all  the  good  possible  from  these  institutions,  it  would  be 
necessary  to  remodel  the  course  of  instruction,  modernize  and  enlarge  the 
programme,  and,  in  short,  infuse  new  life  into  these  old  foundations. 

To  educate  the  masses  by  letting  them  see  the  best  works  of  art  is  the 
next  step  for  Italy.  Following  the  example  of  kindred  nations,  she  has 
undertaken  to  establish  collections  of  industrial  art — such  as  those  of  Lon- 
don, Berlin,  Vienna,  and  Moscow.  The  movement,  however,  is,  for  the 
most  part,  confined  to  a  few  localities. 

Besides  the  Museo  Nazionale  of  Florence,  which,  in  spite  of  the  works 
of  art  that  it  contains,  is  more  especially  an  historical  museum,  and  the 
Museo  Industriale  Italiano  of  Turin,  in  which  art  takes  a  smaller  place 
than  science  or  industry,  we  find  scarcely  any  thing  but  the  foundations 
established  by  the  perseverance  of  some  determined  town,  or,  at  most,  by 
the  exertions  of  the  inhabitants  of  a  province. 

In  Home,  the  municipal  commission  have  recently  established  a  Museo 
d'  Arte  applicata  all'  Industria.  Their  intentions  were  good,  and  the  plan 
well  conceived,  but,  unfortunately,  the  result  has  not  yet  equaled  public 
expectation.  The  want  of  success  is  due  partly  to  the  insufficient  room, 
consisting  only  of  four  or  five  small  apartments,  and  also  to  the  lack  of 
interest  on  the  part  of  the  Koman  aristocracy,  whose  palaces  still  conceal 
so  many  wonders.  There,  where  there  should  have  been  a  brilliant  be- 
ginning, they  have  only  succeeded  in  founding  a  good  and  useful  work, 
condemned  to  languish  unless  some  sudden  or  unlooked-for  aid  should 
come. 

A  much  more  important  undertaking  has  been  begun  in  Milan.  The 
Associazione  Industriale  Italiana  has  attempted  the  creation  of  a  museum 
of  art  applied  to  industry,  destined,  "  with  the  help  of  other  institutions, 
to  form  the  taste  of  artisans,  in  offering  them  good  models  and  a  well- 
directed  course  of  artistic  instruction."  An  exhibition  recently  opened 
serves  as  a  sort  of  prelude.  "With  the  reproduction  of  the  works  which 
are  to  be  seen  there,  they  hope  to  sow  the  seed  of  a  larger  growth,  which 
will  develop  from  year  to  year.  The  exhibition  of  July,  1874,  is  without 
doubt  the  most  important  enterprise  of  the  kind  that  Italy  has  seen  since 
the  Roman  exhibition  of  religious  art  in  1870. 


ART  EDUCATION  IN  NORTHERN  EUROPE  AND  SPAIN.  117 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

ART  INSTRUCTION  AND    TECHNICAL  EDUCATION  IN 
NORTHERN  EUROPE  AND   SPAIN. 

Art  Education  in  the  Northern  Countries  of  Europe. — Trade,  Sunday,  and  Nigbt  Schools. 
— In  these  Countries  no  extended  Effort  in  the  Way  of  Art  Education. — Art  Educa- 
tion in  Spain. — The  Societies  "Amigos  del  Pais,"  Academies,  and  other  lustitutions 
of  Arts  and  Industries. 

Art  instruction  is  pursued  in  a  limited  way  in  several  countries  of 
Northern  Europe,  but  none  of  them  have  instituted  schools  of  instruction 
different  from  those  described  in  other  places.  Of  these  countries  Swe- 
den is  altogether  in  the  advance  in  her 
numerous  Sunday  and  night  schools  es- 
tablished for  the  benefit  of  workmen  and 
workwomen  of  all  ages. 

The  subjects  of  instruction  are  princi- 
pally arithmetic  and  geometry,  linear  and 
free  drawing,  mechanics,  natural  philoso- 
phy, and  chemistry  (with  special  reference 
to  the  particular  branches  of  industry  car-  Antique  ornament, 

ried  on  in  the  locality  in  which  the  schools  are  situated),  modeling,  book- 
keeping, and  orthography. 

The  mode  of  instruction  is  partly  by  lectures,  illustrated  when  neces- 
sar}'-  by  experiments,  drawings,  and  models,  or  by  the  exhibition  of  manu- 
factured articles,  raw  materials,  etc. ;  partly  by  questions  relating  to  the 
various  subjects  taught ;  and  partly  by  drawings  and  other  works  exe- 
cuted under  the  guidance  of  the  teachers. 

ART  EDUCATION  IN  SPAIN. 

There  are  efficient  provisions  for  art  education  in  Spain,  although  any 
thing  like  detailed  statistics  with  regard  to  it  are  not  easily  obtained. 
The  following  information  comes  from  official  sources,  and  was  furnished 
the  writer  by  the  kindness  of  that  accomplished  gentleman,  the  Count  of 


118 


ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 


Fortuny. 

Donadio,  one  of  the  commissioners  for  Spain  at  the  Centennial  Exposi- 
tion. 

In  Spain  there  are  societies  known  as  Amigos  del  Pais.  In  1867, 
there  were  40  of  these  societies,  with  5860  members.  The  total  number 
of  its  "  sections  "  or  "  committees  "  was :  For  science,  8 ;  agriculture,  37 ; 
industrial  arts,  30 ;  commerce,  political  economy,  etc.,  15 ;  public  instruc- 
tion, 19 ;  line  arts,  12 ;  different  other  classes,  10.  The  total  number  of 
schools  conducted  by  these  societies  is :   For  primary  instruction,  3 ;  his- 


SOCIETIES  OF  FINE  ARTS. 


119 


tory,  1 ;  matliematics,  3  ;  physics,  1 ;  drawing,  21 ;  music,  1 ;  hygiene,  2. 
These  societies  also  have  26  libraries,  containing  22,477  volumes,  with 
large  collections  of  manuscripts,  prints,  engravings,  etc. 

The  athenaeums,  academies,  and  scientific  societies  number  some  C2, 
with  13,835  members.  There  are  34  sec- 
tions, as  follows:  Literature,  18 ;  moral  and 
political  sciences,  12;  legislative  adminis- 
tration, 28  ;  history  and  geography,  4 ;  nat- 
ural sciences,  15  ;  medical  sciences,  43  ; 
commerce,  2  ;  agriculture  and  industrial 
arts,  25  ;  fine  arts,  17 ;  different  classes,  25. 

These  sections  have  the  following 
schools :  Primary  instruction,  20 ;  philoso- 
phy, 2 ;  literature,  10 ;  history  and  geog- 
raphy, 12 ;  legislative,  1 ;  agriculture,  2  ; 
commerce  and  industry,  6 ;  natural  sciences, 
27 ;  medical  sciences,  9 ;  languages,  14 ;  fine 
arts,  21;  other  different  classes,  14.  At- 
tached to  these  institutions  are  48  libra- 
ries, containing  38,666  books  and  1613 
manuscripts.  These  societies  are  situated 
in  the  provinces  of  the  peninsula  as  fol- 
lows :  Alava,  1 ;  Almeria,  2 ;  Balearic  Isl- 
ands, 4 ;  Barcelona,  22  ;  Burgos,  1 ;  Granada,  1 ;  Ilueria,  1 ;  Santander,  1 ; 
Seville,  6 ;  Tarragona,  1 ;  Madrid,  9 ;  Malaga,  1 ;  Arrevezza,  1 ;  Toledo,  2  ; 
Yalencia,  4 ;  Yalladolid,  1 ;  Zamora,  1 ;  Saragossa,  2. 


Arab  Urn. 


SOCIETIES  OF  FINE  ARTS. 

There  are  11  societies  especially  devoted  to  the  fine  arts.  They  have 
different  names,  and  are  situated  in  the  following  cities :  Barcelona  has  1 ; 
Cadiz,  2 ;  Granada,  1 ;  Lerida,  2 ;  Malaga,  1 ;  Arrivisa,  1 ;  Salamanca,  1 ; 
Valencia,  1 ;  Saragossa,  1. 

The  schools  of  these  societies  are  as  follows:  Mathematics,  6;  drawing, 
25 ;  painting,  9 ;  sculpture,  6 ;  music,  19 ;  industrial  arts,  8.  There  is  a 
school  for  industrial  engineers,  conducted  by  the  National  Government  at 
Barcelona ;  also  one  for  drawing — for  the  use  of  artisans — at  Madrid.  At 
Madrid  there  is,  besides,  a  "  Conservatory  for  Arts  and  Metiers."  This  is 
an  institution  for  instruction  in  the  industrial  arts.  It  has  a  number  of 
schools  devoted  to  different  branches  of  industry.  There  are  other  highly 
important  schools  under  the  immediate  patronage  and  supervision  of  the 
Government,  such  as  the  special  school  for  painting,  sculpture,  and  en- 


120 


ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 


graving,  and  school  of  arcliitectnre,  besides  other  academies  devoted  to 
other  branches  of  the  arts  and  to  literature. 

From  the  above  list,  it  will  be  seen  that  Spain  is  exercising  a  wide  and 
generous  influence  in  the  promotion  of  the  instruction  which  sustains  her 
exquisite  arts  and  industries. 


EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES.  121 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

GENERAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Education  iu  the  United  States. — The  Common  School  and  its  Programme  of  Instruction. 
— Too  many  Studies  and  too  much  Study. — Cramming. — Education  made  Practical. 
— Higher  Institutions  of  Education. — Colleges,  Academies,  Universities. — Instruc- 
tion iu  these  should  be  more  Practical. — University  of  Cincinnati. 

Common-school  education  exists  in  pretty  much  the  same  form  in  near- 
ly all  the  States  of  the  Union.  In  several  of  the  States  education  is  com- 
pulsory :  in  all  of  them  the  children  of  every  citizen  may  attend  the  pub- 
lic school ;  but  whether  or  not  they  make  use  of  their  opportunity,  all  the 
people  are  taxed  to  help  pay  for  its  support.  In  many  of  these  schools 
the  course  of  instruction  includes  the  elementary  studies  of  reading,  writ- 
ing, arithmetic,  and  geography.  The  course  of  instruction  in  the  schools 
of  the  city  of  Cincinnati  will  serve  as  an  example,  with  the  exception  of 
the  study  of  drawing,  which  is  not  generally  taught  in  public  schools. 

COURSE  OF  INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  SCHOOLS  OF  CINCINNATI. 

District  Schools. — Grade  H,  elements  of  reading,  writing,  arithmetic, 
singing,  grammar,  object  lessons,  drawing,  and  German,  when  desired  by 
parents.  These  are  extended  through  other  grades,  introducing,  in  addi- 
tion, spelling,  composition,  music,  punctuation,  penmanship,  and  other 
studies.  In  the  intermediate  schools  these  are  continued  in  the  higher 
grades,  with  the  addition  of  physics  and  history.  In  the  high  schools 
the  instruction  embraces  yet  larger  subdivisions,  with  those  of  Latin, 
Greek,  and  French,  algebra,  anatomy,  geometry,  natural  philosophy,  bot- 
any, elocution,  chemistry,  astronomy,  book-keeping,  geology,  and  other 
studies. 

It  is  generally  conceded  that  this  long  and  exhaustive  course  of  in- 
struction has  failed  to  accomplish  the  end  for  which  it  was  established.. 
The  majority  of  children  are  able  to  comprehend  intelligently  a  certain 
amount  of  information.    After  that,  the  learning  of  lessons  becomes  sim- 


122  ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 

ply  a  matter  of  memorization  for  the  moment.  Under  constant  use,  the 
mind  becomes  sensitive  to  recollection,  and  one  lesson  is  learned  after  an- 
other, and  almost  as  quickly  passes  out  of  the  mind.  This  process  of 
what  is  called  "  cramming  "  is  a  severe  strain  upon  bodily  health,  and  is 
an  injury  to  the  intellectual  faculties. 

The  best  thinkers,  the  most  experienced  teachers,  have  long  ago  ac- 
knowledged and  deeply  deplored  this  system  of  education ;  but  no  com- 
munity has  yet  had  the  courage  to  reduce  the  burden  of  these  studies, 
which  go  far  beyond  the  line  of  obligation  which  it  is  supposed  the  State 
is  under  to  the  citizen.  The  manifest  mistake  in  this  system  is  the  at- 
tempt to  tit  every  student  for  a  collegiate  education,  and,  ultimately,  for  a 
profession.  The  aim  of  common-school  instruction  should  be  to  give  each 
pupil  an  education  which  would  make  the  choice  of  a  profession  possible, 
and  to  place  an  industrial  occupation  within  certain  reach. 

The  entire  population  can  not  gain  a  livelihood  as  lawyers,  physicians, 
or  clergymen ;  but  any  man  may  earn  an  honest  living  in  the  thousand 
and  one  occupations  which  require  technical  knowledge.  The  foundation 
of  technical  knowledge  is  drawing.  Every  one  can  be  taught  the  simple 
elements  of  drawing,  and  these  may  easily  form  a  part  of  the  system  of 
common-school  education. 

It  is  not  proposed  in  this  book  to  do  more  than  give  an  outline  of  the 

best  way  of  teaching  draw- 
ing in  the  public  schools. 
It  is  important  to  urge  upon 
those  who  direct  the  systems 
of  instruction  in  the  com- 
mon schools  the  wisdom  of 
a  change  which  shall  permit 
the  introduction  of  drawing 
as  one  of  the  regular  stud- 
ies. Tliis  change  can  be  effected  in  several  ways ;  either  by  substitution 
in  place  of  those  which  are  more  ornamental  than  useful,  or  by  abridging 
the  extent  of  these  studies. 

Mathematics  may  be  abridged  to  the  science  of  numbers.  Geography, 
as  taught,  covers  a  large  field  of  knowledge,  which  is  far  beyond  the  possi- 
ble needs  of  most  pupils.  History  embraces  a  vast  range  of  events :  to  re- 
peat these  from  memory  is  a  tax  upon  the  intellect,  and  they  fly  beyond 
recall  as  other  facts  are  crammed  into  the  bewildered  mind  of  the  child. 
In  the  studies  of  composition  and  the  languages  there  is  much  which 
might  be  abridged.  In  the  high  schools  all  of  these  accumulate  to  an  ab- 
surd degree,  if  it  is  the  intention  of  the  pupil  to  follow  a  mechanical  occu- 


Roman  Bowl  of  Samian  Ware. 


ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED   STATES. 


123 


pation.  Latin,  Greek,  French,  German,  anatomy,  natural  philosophy,  bot- 
any, elocution,  astronomy,  and  chemistry  have  their  practical  uses ;  but  of 
the  boys  and  girls  who  go  to  the  public  schools,  nine  in  ten  receive  no 
benefit  from  them.  As  men  and  women  they  will  be  glad  to  be  able  to 
earn  two,  three,  or  four  dollars  a  day  at  manual  labor.  These  facts  must 
be  recognized  and  accepted  by  every  intelligent  observer.  The  time, 
therefore,  which  is  sacrificed  to  these  higher  studies  ought  to  be  given  to 
those  which  are  more  useful.  There  can  be  no  doubt  but  what  drawing 
is  practical  and  useful.  Its  importance  is  not  a  new  or  doubtful  question. 
It  has  been  settled  by  the  action  of  all  the  European  governments,  which 
now  give  to  drawing  a  fixed  place  in  their  school  education.  Its  value  to 
the  laborer  and  the  artisan  may  be  gathered  from  the  list  of  occupations 
in  which  drawing  is  of  use,  already  noted  in  these  pages. 

One  of  the  reasons  why  drawing  has  not  heretofore  formed  a  part  of 
common-school  instruction  in  the  United  States  may  be  found  in  the  fact 
that  most  of  the  schools  have  been  organized  where  the  population  was 
limited,  where  there  were  few  manufactures,  and  the  demand  for  manu- 
factured articles  was  confined  to  the  necessities  of  life.  These  conditions 
are  changing  every  day.  The  population  of  the  United  States  is  increas- 
ing enormously  through  emigration  and  by  natural  growth.  All  over  the 
country,  minerals,  coals,  and  clays,  to  a  boundless  extent,  are  dug  out  of 
the  earth,  and  appropriated  to  human  uses;  and  so,  with  large  demand  and 
exhaustless  means  of  supply,  manufactures  and  trades  have  rapidly  in- 
creased. With  these  vast  and  varied  interests  comes  the  necessity  for  other 
and  more  practical  means  of  education.  Tlie  common  school  must  accom- 
modate its  programme  of  instruction  so  as  to  provide  for  drawing.  This 
is  most  emphatically  the  need  of  the  peo- 
ple. At  the  basis  of  technical  knowledge 
stands  drawing.  The  children  of  the  wcrrh- 
ers,  who  are  to  be  workers  themselves,  must 
be  taught  to  draw. 

In  the  discussion  of  the  subject  of  edu- 
cation in  the  United  States,  the  higher  in- 
stitutions of  learning  should  be  included. 
The  plan  of  some  of  these  proposes  to  con- 
tinue the  education  already  obtained  in 
public  and  private  schools.  Others  take  the 
pupil  at  the  beginning,  and  dismiss  him  fit- 
ted for  the  practice  of  a  profession.  The 
following  list  of  such  institutions  is  chiefly 

.        Z'  1.1  ,.1  Roman  British  Pitcher,  Thirteeuth 

obtamed  from  the  admirable  reports  of  the  century. 


124  ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED   TO  INDUSTRY. 

Commissioner  for  Education  for  the  United  States,  and  is  arranged  so 
as  to  show  the  class  to  which  they  belong  : 

Colleges  and  universities 324 

Schools  of  theology 118 

Schools  of  medicine,  pharmacy,  etc 94 

Schools  of  law 43 

Normal  schools 120 

Schools  of  design 10 

Schools  of  mining,  engineering,  agriculture,  etc.,  endowed  with  the  na- 
tional land  grant 44 

Schools  of  mining,  engineering,  agiculture,  etc.,  not  endowed  with  the 

national  land  grant 29 

Total 782 

Museums  of  art  and  archiBology 13 

Of  the  above  list,  several  of  the  schools  of  law  and  theology  are  a  part 
of  the  colleges  and  universities  already  named ;  of  the  normal  schools, 
several  are  devoted  to  technical  education.  Of  the  schools  of  mining  en- 
dowed by  the  national  land  grant  but  little  that  is  encouraging  can  be 
said.  The  lands  granted  under  the  ordinance  of  1787 — 1,119,440  acres — 
have  very  nearly  been  squandered,  and  only  in  three  or  four  of  the  States 
is  there  any  thing  left  to  show  for  this  generous  gift.  Under  the  ordi- 
nance of  1862,  some  $7,000,000  were  donated  with  better  results.  In 
twenty- four  institutions,  in  1873,  it  was  said  there  were  2604  students, 
with  321  professors  and  assistants.  Although  these  schools  are  professed- 
ly devoted  to  technical  education,  it  is  doubtful  if  it  has  been  practically 
or  systematically  applied ;  at  least,  there  has  been  no  evidence  of  such  ajj- 
plication. 

The  schools  of  mining  and  the  others  which  are  not  endowed  by  the 
National  Government  are  better  known  for  their  useful  work.  It  may 
be  that  several  of  them  are  older,  but  it  is  fair  to  presume  that  any 
educational  institution  established  because  of  the  necessities  of  the  com- 
munity, with  its  aid  and  under  its  management,  is  more  likely  to  thrive 
than  those  which  grow  out  of  the  favor  of  the  IS^ational  Government 
with  no  special  need  and  under  no  direct  control.  In  one  case  the  re- 
sponsibility is  constant  and  near;  in  the  other  it .  is  uncertain  and  far 
removed. 

Of  the  680  educational  institutions  above  named,  less  than  a  score  are 
especially  devoted  to  art  training.  Harvard,  Cornell,  Yale,  Yassar,  the 
College  of  Notre  Dame,  and  the  universities  of  Michigan,  Cincinnati,  and 
Bochester,  either  have  a  special  department  in  art  education,  or  give  some 
attention  to  art  in  the  way  of  lectures  or  in  gathering  collections,  but 


VALUE  OF  TECHNICAL  EDUCATION.  125 

nearly  all  the  remainder  of  these  universities  and  schools  are  devoted  to 
other  instruction. 

Of  technical  education  which  would  enable  him  to  earn  his  daily  bread, 
develop  the  natural  resources  of  the  land,  and  benefit  society,  the  gradu- 
ate from  these  institutions  obtains  but  little.  Our  cities  and  towns  are 
full  of  young  men  who  have  had  this  kind  of  academic  education,  who 
have  abundant  capacity,  but  who  do  not  know  how  to  make  profitable  use 
of  it.  There  should  be  a  decided  change  in  the  course  of  instruction  in 
the  larger  number  of  colleges  referred  to  above,  in  favor  of  a  more  prac- 
tical education.  The  agricultural,  mineral,  and  manufacturing  interests 
of  the  United  States  literally  have  no  limit  for  the  employment  of  those 
who  are  educated  to  know  how  to  develop  them.  The  higher  collegiate 
institutions,  like  Harvard,  Yale,  Columbia,  and  Cornell,  fulfill  the  impor- 
tant and  necessary  requirements  of  classical  and  sesthetical  instruction; 
and  even  they  are  doing  mote-  than  any  others  in  the  cause  of  technical 
education. 

At  the  city  of  Cincinnati  there  is  the  University  of  Cincinnati,  which 
has  an  income  of  about  $40,000. .  This  sum  will  be  increased  if  the  orig- 
inal intention  of  its  organization  be  carried  out.  What  an  admirable  op- 
portunity is  there  here  to  organize  an  institution  for  technical  instruction  ! 
There  is  every  reason  to  believe  a  result  so  useful  might  be  accomplished 
at  Cincinnati.  She  is  a  city  fourth  in  importance  in  the  United  States  as 
a  manufacturing  centre.  All  around  and  near  her  are  infinite  supplies  of 
coal,  iron,  and  other  metals.  For  hundreds  of  miles,  in  every  direction, 
she  drains  the  richest  agricultural  regions  of  the  West.  The  Ohio  River 
and  many  railroads  bring  to  the  doors  of  her  workshops  the  walnut,  hick- 
ory, oak,  beech,  maple,  poplar,  and  pine  of  the  dense  forests  of  Oliio,  In- 
diana, and  Kentucky.  She  owes  her  importance  as  a  manufacturing  cen- 
tre to  the  fortunate  fact  that  the  principal  materials,  the  most  bulky  and 
costly  which  she  uses,  are  within  easy  reach.  Cincinnati  is,  therefore,  one 
of  the  most  fitting  places  in  the  United  States  for  the  establishment  of  a 
school  for  mining,  engineering,  technical  and  art  instruction. 


■>.-; 


126  ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTKY. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

ART  EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Art  Edncation  in  the  United  States. — The  Need  of  Art  Education. — Difficulty  of  the 
Adoption  of  any  of  the  European  Plans. — The  State  of  Massachusetts. — Professor 
Smith's  Plan  of  Education. — Results  of  the  Experiment. — Drawing  taught  in  the 
Schools  of  Cincinnati  and  New  York. — Special  Schools  of  Art  Instruction. — Cooper 
Institute. — School  of  Design  for  Women  at  Philadelphia. — School  of  Design  of  the 
University  of  Cincinnati.  —  National  Academy  of  Design,  New  York.  —  Schools  iu 
Lowell  and  Worcester,  Massachusetts. 

The  best  method  of  art  education  for  the  United  States  is  a  question 
which  requires  thoughtful  consideration.  It  is  a  subject  new  to  the  peo- 
ple of  this  country,  and  it  may  be  difficult  to  persuade  them  that  the  art 
of  drawing  and  design  is  of  such  general  use  and  importance  as  to  justify 
its  introduction  as  one  of  the  elementary  studies  in  the  public  schools.  It' 
is  possible  that  the  recognition  of  this  necessity  will  be  of  slow  growth, 
but  it  is  very  certain  that  one  of  the  most  efficacious  means  of  raising 
the  people  to  this  standard  will  be  to  teach  thera  drawing  in  their  early 
years;  and  here  the  public  school  offers  instruction  within  the  reach  of 
both  sexes  and  all  classes.  Art  instruction  may  be  more  easily  intro- 
duced in  large  cities  and  in  manufacturing  neighborhoods  than  in  iso- 
lated country  districts.  The  latter  need  it,  however,  fully  as  much  as  the 
former;  for  the  life  of  the  farmer  and  laborer  in  the  sparsely  settled  dis- 
tricts of  the  South  and  West  is  one  of  drudgery  and  monotony,  and,  be- 
sides its  actual  benefits  in  his  daily  work,  drawing  would  become  a  means 
of  distraction  and  pleasure. 

In  European  countries  the  larger  part  of  the  population  is  gathered  in 
cities  and  within  narrow  bounds  of  territory.  Within  daily  reach  and 
use  of  these  people  are  ample  resources  in  the  way  of  material  by  which 
art  education  is  attained.  The  tools,  paper,  and  instruments  can  be  had 
at  small  cost ;  the  ateliers  are  admirably  aiTanged  for  purposes  of  study ; 
the  galleries  are  full  of  the  finest  statuary,  drawings,  and  paintings  of  tlie 
masters ;  there  are  museums  filled  with  magnificent  collections  of  natural 
history  and  objects  of  art ;  there  are  libraries  where  every  possible  want 
can  be  answered. 


ART  EDUCATION  IN  MASSACHUSETTS. 


127 


In  tlie  Old  World  all  is  favorable  for  the  study  of  art.  In  the  United 
States  the  opportunities  are  poor.  Our  museums,  collections  of  statuary, 
and  models  for  drawing  are  limited  in  number  and  meagre.  There  are 
but  few  established  picture-galleries.  Of  persons  properly  educated  as 
teachei-s  of  drawing,  or  in  the  apjjlication  of  art  knowledge  to  practical  in- 
dustries, there  are  scarcely  any.  The  cost  of 
materials  is  much  greater  here  than  in  Eu- 
rope. It  is  one  of  the  discouraging  features 
of  our  tarifiE  upon  imported  articles  that  it 
taxes  heavily  every  thing  that  relates  to  edu- 
cation in  art.  We  are  ignorant  of  what  we 
need,  and  at  once  proceed  to  put  hinderances 
in  the  road  for  obtaining  knowledge.  Be- 
sides these  wants  and  obstructions,  there  are 
differences  between  our  civilization  and  that 
of  Europe  which  prevent  the  general  adop- 
tion of  any  specific  plan  of  art  instruction 
like  those  which  have  been  described.  A 
plan  like  that  of  England  or  France,  for  ex- 
ample, is  not  feasible  in  the  United  States,  un- 
less we  change  the  theory  and  practice  of  our 
institutions,  and  permit  the  National  Govern- 
ment to  interfere  with  the  State  and  local 
governments  in  their  systems  of  education, 
radical  as  this  is  not  likely  to  occur. 


Koman  British  Pitcher,  Thirteenth 
Century. 


A  change  so  sweeping  and 
The  people  of  the  towns  and  cities 
of  the  United  States  would  not  allow  the  General  Government  to  regulate 
the  course  of  studies  in  their  schools,  any  more  than  they  would  allow  it 
to  appoint  their  selectmen  or  frame  laws  for  their  municipal  government. 
If  there  be  any  community  in  the  United  States  to  which  this  ex- 
periment of  public  art  instruction  can  be  applied,  it  is  the  State  of  Mas- 
sachusetts. The  brief  duration  of  the  summer  season,  and  the  hard,  un- 
productive soil,  have,  in  great  measure,  deprived  her  of  the  fruits  of  ag- 
riculture. By  thrift  and  sagacity  her  people  have  accumulated  capital, 
which  has  been  invested  in  trade  and  manufactures.  The  ingenuity  and 
industry  of  the  citizens  of  this  commonwealth  have  placed  her  manufact- 
uring interests  largely  in  advance  of  those  of  her  sister  States,  and  the 
movement  for  industrial  art  education  has  been  begun  there  under  the 
greatest  advantages  and  fairest  auspices.  The  law  which  established  this 
branch  of  education  in  the  public  schools  of  Massachusetts  went  into  ef- 
fect in  May,  1870.  It  is  absolute,  and  applies  to  all  cities  with  a  popula- 
tion of  ten  thousand  and  over  that  number. 


128  ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 

Under  this  law  Professor  Walter  Smitli  was  appointed  State  director 
of  art  education.  This  gentleman,  who  had  been  an  "art  master"  in  En- 
gland, and  was  thoroughly  learned  in  the  course  of  instruction  practiced 
in  that  country,  has  suggested  and  put  in  operation  in  Massachusetts  a 
system  similar  to  that  of  the  South  Kensington  School.  At  the  outset, 
Professor  Smith  met  with  the  difficulty  which  is  encountered  in  all  at- 
tempts at  general  art  education.  There  were  no  teachers  properly  quali- 
fied ;  so  he  and  the  school  authorities  at  once  established  a  normal  school. 
This  school  has  been  in  existence  several  years,  and  is  supplying  teachers 
for  the  public  day  and  night  schools. 

Although  all  the  towns  which  come  under  the  provisions  of  the  State 
law  have  not  accepted  the  privileges  of  art  education,  yet  in  Boston,  Law- 
rence, Worcester,  and  other  places  where  it  has  been  in  practice,  the  re- 
sults have  been  more  than  satisfactory.  The  drawings  exhibited  each 
year  represent  the  work  of  the  day  and  night  schools,  and  they  show  a 
substantial  and  genuine  progress.  The  scholars  are  taught  the  art  of  de- 
sign, and  in  the  right  way.  The  study  of  descriptive  geometry  enters 
largely  into  the  plan,  and  the  certain  results  follow  of  good  drawing  and 
distinct,  original  ideas.  The  system  of  Professor  Smith  has  the  distinct- 
ive merit  that  it  is  the  first  attempt,  in  a  correct  and  thorough  way,  of 
teaching  the  art  of  design  in  the  United  States. 

Very  recently  (during  the  month  of  February,  187Y)  reports  were  cir- 
culated through  the  newspapers  that  the  method  of  drawing  in  use  in  the 
public  schools  of  Boston  had  failed,  and  that  the  school  authorities  had 
abridged  the  studies  in  drawing.  It  is  a  great  pleasure  to  the  writer  of 
this  work,  just  before  it  goes  to  press,  to  be  able,  not  only  to  give  jDcrsonal 
assurances  from  Professor  Smith  of  the  untruth  of  this  story,  but  also  ex- 
tracts from  the  report  of  the  school  committee  for  1876,  just  published, 
which  affirm  the  complete  success  of  this  system  of  drawing.  This  com- 
mittee reports :  "  So  much  has  been  already  written  and  spoken  about 
drawing  in  the  public  schools,  that  the  pros  and  cons  are  generally  known 
to  all  who  take  an  interest  in  the  matter,  and  need  not  therefore  be  re- 
peated here.  Bearing  the  latter  in  mind,  it  is  a  satisfaction  to  those  who 
believe  in  the  important  influence  *of  this  study  upon  the  industrial  fut- 
ure of  the  State,  to  see  that  time  has  only  strengthened  the  general  feel- 
ing as  to  the  force  of  the  arguments  used  in  its  favor,  and  made  the  Aveak- 
ness  of  those  employed  against  it  more  and  more  evident.  *  *  *  Be- 
fore entering  into  details  concerning  the  study  of  drawing  as  at  present 
conducted,  it  may  be  well  to  correct  unfounded  reports  that  the  time  de- 
voted to  drawing  in  the  schools  has  been  cut  down,  and  the  course  of 
study  considerably  circumscribed."     The  report  goes  on  to  show  that  the 


ART  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


129 


studies  have  not  been  abridged.  It  also  gives  extracts  from  letters  by  the 
superintendents  of  public  schools  in  Boston,  St.  Louis,  and  Milwaukee, 
showing  that  drawing  is  now  heartily  accepted  as  a  necessary  and  most 
useful  branch  of  study  in  those  cities. 

This  branch  of  study  has  also  been  introduced  into  the  public  schools 
of  States  and  cities  in  other  parts  of  the  country,  and  especially  in  the 
State  of  New  York,  where  it  is  established  by  recently  enacted  laws. 

In  the  city  of  Cincinnati,  drawing  has  been  for  several  years  one  of 
the  studies  in  all  the  grades  of  the  public  schools,  with 
the  following  limit  of  time: 

District  Schools. — Grades  II  and  G,  three  lessons 
of  thirty  minutes  each  per  week ;  Grades  F,  E,  and 
D,  one  lesson  of  sixty  minutes  and  one  of  thirty  min- 
utes per  week. 

Intermediate  Schooh. — Grades  C,  B,  and  A,  two 
lessons  of  forty  minutes  each  per  week. 

High  Schools.  —  One  lesson  of  forty -five  minutes 
per  week  in  all  the  grades. 

Normal  School. — Two  lessons  of  one  hour's  dura- 
tion per  week. 

The  advantages  of  the  instruction  of  drawing  in 
the  schools  of  Cincinnati  are  not  as  perceptible  as 
they  might  be.  The  system  has  many  admirable 
points,  but  it  is  also  somewhat  defective.  Besides 
faults  in  the  programme,  it  commits  the  error  of  di- 
minishing the  time  given  to  drawing  as  the  student 
ascends  to  the  higher  grades.     In  addition  to  these  Enuscan  vase. 

general  efforts,  there  is  in  the  United  States  a  limited  number  of  insti- 
tutions specially  devoted  to  art  education. 

The  Woman's  Art  School  at  the  Cooper  Institute,  in  New  York,  is 
one  of  tlie  oldest  that  have  had  the  special  object  of  art  training ;  but  it  is 
narrow  in  its  scope,  confining  its  efforts  to  instruction  in  drawing,  draw- 
ing upon  wood,  wood-engraving,  and  painting.  This  school  does  not  un- 
dertake a  system  of  general  art  education. 

The  Philadelphia  School  of  Design  for  Women  has  a  much  wider  range, 
undertaking  a  more  complete  course.  This  school  also  applies  its  teach- 
ing to  the  industrial  arts  of  engraving,  lithography,  and  practical  design. 

The  Philadelphia  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  has  excellent  means  of  in- 
struction for  tine-art  purposes.  It  has  a  large  and  commodious  building, 
collections  of  casts  and  paintings,  and  other  material  for  study,  besides  a 
corps  of  experienced  teachers. 

9 


130 


ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTEY. 


The  ^National  Academy  of  Design,  in  New  York,  has  a  school  for 
drawing,  painting,  and  modeling,  with  the  view  of  perfecting  advanced 
students  in  the  arts  of  painting  and  sculpture.  Its  choice  collection  of 
antique  statuary  gives  to  this  school  excellent  opportunities  of  art  study ; 
but  no  student  is  fit  to  avail  himself  of  these  models  unless  he  has  previ- 
ously pursued  an  elementary  course  of  instruction  similar  to  that  which 
will  hereafter  be  suggested  in  this  book. 

The  Lowell  Free  School  of  Industrial  Design,  connected  with  the  Mas- 
sachusetts Institute  of  Technology,  offers  an  admirable  course  of  art  in- 
struction, which  is  directed  chiefly  toward  the  arts  of  design  as  applied 
to  the  manufacture  of  textile  fabrics  in  the  cities  of  Lowell  and  Lawrence. 

Connected  with  the  Cooper  Institute,  in  ]S^ew  York,  there  is  a  Free 
Night-school  of  Science  and  Art,  which  proposes  to  instruct  in  general  art 
education. 

The  Worcester  County  Free  Institute,  in  Massachusetts,  also  has  a 
course  of  instruction  in  "theoretical  and  practical  training  in  those  branch- 
es of  knowledge  which  underlie  the  industrial  arts." 

The  school  of  design  which  forms  a  part  of  the  University  of  Cincin- 


Romano-British  Upchurch  Ware. 

nati  has  the  great  advantage  of  an  annual  fund  of  ten  thousand  dollars, 
which  is  devoted  to  the  one  purpose  of  art  education.  There  are  three 
departments  in  the  school.  These  are  the  drawing,  modeling,  and  carving 
classes.  The  drawing  deparment,  which  is  the  school  of  design  proper, 
lias  three  classes,  with  separate  divisions  for  night  and  day  sessions,  each 
of  which  has  a  term  of  one  year.  The  day  classes  are  filled  chiefly  with 
young  women,  the  night  classes  with  workmen.  Besides  the  above,  there 
are  in  the  drawing  school  a  "life"  class,  for  drawing  and  painting,  and  a 
class  which  is  devoted  especially  to  the  study  of  design. 

The  course  of  instruction  in  this  school  covers  a  large  field  of  art 
study.     Instruction  in  drawing  is  based  upon  descriptive  geometry,  and 


SUCCESSFUL  PROGRESS. 


131 


the  print  is  but  little  used.  Since  the  recent  adoption  of  the  study  of  de- 
scriptive geometry,  the  progress  of  the  school  has  been  decidedly  in  ad- 
vance of  its  previous  experience.  The  school  has  been  in  existence  since 
1870,  and  has  annually  sent  forth  a  corps  of  teachers  admirably  instructed 
in  drawing,  perspective,  composition,  painting,  and  the  art  of  design.  It 
will  probably  become  the  normal  school  for  instruction  in  the  industrial 
and  fine  arts  when  these  shall  be  introduced  as  a  part  of  the  school  system 
of  the  State  of  Ohio. 

A  school  of  architecture  and  design  has  also  recently  been  established 
at  the  University  of  Michigan. 


132  ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

THE  BEST  METHOD    OF  ART  INSTRUCTION  FOR    THE 
UNITED  STATES. 

The  best  Method  of  Art  Edncation  for  the  Uuited  States. — Differeuces  between  the  Euro- 
pean Programmes  of  Education. — The  Methods  of  Instruction  most  practiced  in  tliis 
Country  Injurious  rather  than  Beneficial. — General  Plan  of  a  Proper  System  of  In- 
struction.— Adaptation  of  the  Scheme  to  the  Common  Schools  in  the  United  States. 
— Merits  of  the  System  of  Drawing  from  Solids  in  Relief. — How  this  Plan  is  Useful 
to  all  Classes.  —  Time  occupied  in  these  Studies.— -Superior  Instruction.  —  Course 
of  Superior  Instruction:  Painting,  Sculpture,  Architecture.  —  The  Teacher.  —  Nor- 
mal Schools.  —  Plan  of  Instruction  may  be  varied  in  the  Interest  of  Localities. — 
Practical  Application  of  the  Arts  of  Painting,  Sculpture,  and  Architecture  to  Vari- 
ous Industries. 

We  have  given  a  brief  sketch  of  the  condition  of  art  education  in  all 
the  principal  countries  of  Europe  and  in  the  United  States.  There  are  nu- 
merous details  connected  with  the  process  of  instruction,  a  description  of 
which  does  not  come  within  the  limits  of  this  book.  The  machinery  for 
teaching  differs  in  one  way  or  another  in  almost  every  school.  Under  the 
regulations  of  the  Kensington  Art  School,  for  example,  the  harder,  sharp- 
er point  of  the  crayon  is  used  in  drawing.  In  France,  Belgium,  and  Ger- 
many, the  "  stump  "  is  used  quite  as  much  as  the  crayon  point.  And  so 
of  tables,  drawing-boards,  paper,  tools  of  all  kinds,  the  arrangements  of 
rooms,  studios,  light,  and  models  in  use — these  differ  in  details,  but  tliey 
accomplish  approximate  results.  In  the  programmes  of  art  instruction,  as 
has  been  shown,  there  are  material  variations.  Until  within  a  few  years 
the  systems  of  England  and  Germany  resembled  each  other,  and  were  dis- 
tinguished from  those  of  otlier  parts  of  Europe  by  the  introduction  of  sci- 
entific studies.  But  of  late  Belgium  has  adopted  a  more  strictly  scientific 
basis  of  education  than  either  of  the  other  two,  and  France  has  also  put 
aside  a  great  deal  which  was  called  "  artistic,"  but  which  was  altogether  un- 
artistic,  and  adopted  a  programme  based  upon  the  elements  of  geometry. 

In  order  to  show  important  differences  in  the  methods  of  instruction 
among  these  nations,  let  us  look  at  the  programmes  in  use  by  the  Englisli 
and  Belgian  governments  respectively.     These  two  may  best  be  offered 


ENGLISH  METHOD  OF  INSTRUCTION. 


133 


for  comparison,  because  each  has  adopted  a  distinct  course  of  instruction, 
wliich  is  used  by  all  the  schools  in  those  kingdoms.  There  are  two  points 
of  variance  between  Great  Britain  and  Belgium  which  will  at  -once  strike 
the  observer.  In  the  scheme  of  instruction  of  Belgium,  the  pupil  is  first 
taught  the  fundamental  principles  of  design,  such  as  linear  drawing,  arith- 
metic, the  elements  of  algebra,  geometry,  projection,  linear  perspective, 
shadows,  anatomy  of  the  human  body,  and  ornamental  design.  At  a  cer- 
tain point  he  has  all  the  fundamental  knowledge  necessary  for  his  career 
as  an  artist  or  mechanic ;  and  here  he  can  stop  if  he  chooses,  or  he  can  fol- 
low one  or  all  of  the  three  subse- 
quent divisions  of  painting,  sculpt- 
ure, and  architecture. 

The  English  method  is  not  so 
well  classified.  It  brings  all  these 
studies  together;  it  contains  much 
that  is  excessive  and  cumbersome; 
and  the  student  is  obliged  to  study 
branches  of  the  arts  and  sciences 
for  which  he  may  not  have  subse- 
quent use.  The  second  point  of 
difference  is  yet  more  marked. 
Belgium  entirely  suppresses  the  es- 
tampe,  or  print,  and  condemns  its 
use  in  strong  terms.  England  re- 
tains it  with  many  of  its  marked 
defects.  A  third  point  of  difference  is,  England  gives  money  rewards  to 
pupils,  while  Belgium  does  not.  The  history  and  experience  of  all  these 
efforts  to  establish  art  education  are  of  great  value  to  us  in  the  United 
States ;  and  while  we  can  not  adopt  or  set  in  operation  the  same  adminis- 
trative organization  because  of  our  form  of  government,  we  can  make  use 
of  what  is  best  in  their  methods  of  instruction. 


Staffordshire  Tig,  or  Drinking-cup,  Seventeenth 
Century. 


THE  BASIS  OF  INSTRUCTION  SHOULD  BE  UPON  GEOMETRICAL  PRINCIPLES, 
THE  STUDY  OF  NATURE,  AND  SUPPRESSION  OF  PRINT-COPYING. 

Although  we  have  but  few  schools  of  design,  and  the  teaching  of 
drawing  in  the  public  schools  is  limited,  yet  it  forms  one  of  the  branches 
of  instruction  in  most  of  the  private  schools  and  academies  for  boys  and 
girls.  In  hardly  any  of  these  schools  is  there  an  intelligent  system  of  in- 
struction. Drawing  is  placed  in  the  curriculum  because  it  is  supposed 
to  be  an  "  accomplishment."  The  assumption  that  drawing  is  properly 
taught  at  these  places  in  most  cases  would  be  a  fraud,  were  it  not  for  the 


134 


ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 


fact  that  the  principals  and  teachers  honestly  believe  that  they  really  are 
teaching  drawing.  Who  has  not  seen  the  singular  examples  which  come 
from  these  schools,  in  crayon,  pencil,  and  monochrome ;  bad  copies  from 
shockingly  drawn  prints  of  Alpine  views,  portraits  of  Turks,  sultanas, 
saints,  and  Madonnas,  poodle-dogs,  cats,  lions,  tigers,  and  other  tame  and 
wild  animals  ?  In  the  effort  to  make  one  of  these  copies,  the  student 
struggles  through  a  great  deal  of  work,  and  at  the  end  of  it  all  has  actu- 
ally learned  nothing — not  one  fixed  principle,  not  a  rule  of  art,  not  the 
least  conception  of  the  laws  of  perspective  and  correct  drawing,  not  the 
faintest  shadow  of  a  notion  of  the  art  of  design. 

It  is  not  so  nmcli  the  object  of  this  discussion  to  point  out  the  defects 
of  existing  plans  of  instruction  as  it  is  to  suggest  what  is  believed  to  be 
the  best.  At  the  same  time,  this  purpose  can  not  be  explained  so  com- 
pletely as  it  ought  to  be,  except  by  more  or  less  of  comparison.  Careful 
investigation  of  this  subject  will  show  that  most  of  the  pubhshed  art  stud- 
ies, drawing-books,  text-books,  and  so  on,  are  defective  in  their  plan  of  in- 
struction, or,  rather,  they  have  no  systematic  plan.  One  of  the  serious  er- 
rors to  be  noticed  among  these  is  the  introduction  of  objects,  at  several 
stages  of  instruction,  involving  the  necessity  for  a  knowledge  of  the  rules 
of  perspective,  without  any  attempt  to  teach  perspective.  Furthermore, 
these  books  are  filled  with  all  sorts  of  "directions,"  which  are  of  little 
use,  and  confuse  the  pupil.  Instead  of  these  crude  schemes,  an  evenly 
graduated  system,  based  upon  the  principles  of  geometry,  is  the  true 
method.     This  is  a  plan,  simple  and  rational,  which  teaches  the  pupil 

rapidly  and  easily  to  draw  objects  in  relief ;  not 
only  inanimate  objects,  but  nature,  with  all  the 
glory  of  earth  and  sky ;  its  loveliness  of  light, 
shadow,  and  color;  and,  happiest  accomplishment 
of  all,  to  depict  human  nature. 

The  art  of  drawing  and  the  art  of  design  can 
be  attained  by  a  correct  method  of  instruction,  and 
by  no  other.     These  elementary  principles  are 
very  simple.     They  are  the  alphabet  and  gram- 
mar of  design.     The  study  and  practice  of  these 
principles  are  as  necessary  for  the  artist  as  the 
mechanic,  and  are  the  same  for  one  as  the  other. 
In  the  statement  of  the  order  of  these  studies,  the 
programme  adopted  in  Belgium — with  modifica- 
Bronze  Vase  decorated  with  sii-    tious  and  additions — wiU  be  followed,  because  of 
ver.-Fonnd  at  Pompeii.         -^^  simplicity  and  directness.     The  report  upon 
this  subject  made  by  M.  Taeye  has  also  been  freely  used  in  this  discussion. 


DUTIES  OF  THE   STUDENT.  135 

GENERAL  PLAN  OF  A  PROPER  SCHEME   OF  INSTRUCTION. 

At  first  the  student  is  given  a  mathematical  and  exact  idea  of  differ- 
ent lines  and  plane  surfaces.  Then  he  is  exercised  simultaneously  in  the 
drawing  of  geometrical  forms,  in  the  use  of  instruments,  in  drawing  at 
sight,  with  free-hand,  upon  the  blackboard  and  upon  paper. 

In  drawing  these  plane  figures,  the  student  acquires  the  habit  of  draw- 
ing with  exactitude,  taste,  and  precision.  He  teaches  himself  the  meaning 
of  regular  figures,  as  being  a  part  of  the  expressions  used  in  the  language 
of  the  arts,  and  especially  of  the  exact  sciences.  At  this  stage  of  instruc- 
tion the  student  may  begin  to  model  in  clay  simple  forms  from  plaster 
models  and  from  nature.  Later  the  principles  of  projection  and  the  ele- 
ments of  perspective  teach  the  student  to  see  bodies  in  space,  and  the  way 
to  express,  by  outline  alone,  the  forms  of  solids,  which  is  the  essence  of 
drawing  itself. 

Then  follows  the  application  of  geometrical  figures  and  natural  ob- 
jects, such  as  leaves  and  flowers,  to  ornamentation ;  and  attention  will  be 
given  to  the  interlacing  of  forms  and  lines,  that  productive  source  of  all 
flat  ornamentation,  which  completes  this  branch  of  instruction.  The  use- 
ful side  of  these  exercises  may  be  seen  in  the  fact  that  they  possess  the 
mind  of  the  student  with  ideas  of  regularity,  symmetry,  and  those  propor- 
tions which  are  in  art  the  conditions  of  order  and  beauty.  These  first 
studies,  in  their  combined  effect,  will  be  consummated  with  a  general  idea 
of  primitive  colors,  of  which  the  students  will  make  application  in  poly- 
chrome, in  flat  tints,  by  juxtaposition,  and  upon  their  ordinary  drawings. 
This  will  constitute  a  first  lesson  upon  the  relative  value  of  the  harmony 
of  colors,  and,  at  the  same  time,  upon  the  application  of  drawing  to  in- 
dustry. 

Following  all  of  this,  the  pupil  will  enter  upon  the  general  principles 
of  relief  by  the  study  of  the  effect  of  lights  and  shadows  upon  solids, 
which  will  finally  lead  to  the  complete  representation  of  bodies  seen  in 
space.  Thus  possessing  all  the  elements  which  constitute  the  true  princi- 
ples of  design,  he  will  pass  to  the  study  of  drawing  after  casts,  of  frag- 
ments of  architecture,  and  ornaments  taken  from  the  most  beautiful  mon- 
uments of  antiquity,  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  the  Renaissance ;  then  from 
fragments  of  heads,  busts,  torsos  taken  from  the  chef-d''(Buvres  of  the  an- 
tique. Thus,  while  the  student  acquires  the  first  ideas  of  the  history  of 
art,  he  is  led  to  study  the  principles  of  the  human  figure. 

In  each  course  of  these  studies  the  pupil  will  repeat  from  memory  the 
exercises  he  has  already  made.  The  practical  usefulness  of  this  is  evident. 
It  calls  into  beine:  the  faculties  which  excite  and  test  his  artistic  and  crea- 


136 


AET  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 


tive  powers.  The  studies  in  modeling  will  also  be  continued  by  copying 
in  clay  from  plaster  models  of  fruit  and  animals,  and,  later,  fragments  of 
architecture,  the  head,  torso,  and  the  entire  human  figure. 

ADAPTATION  OF  THIS  SCHEME  TO  THE  COMMON  SCHOOLS. 

The  method  of  instruction  w^liich  has  been  briefly  sketched  will  now 
be  ada]3ted  to  the  primary,  intermediate,  and  high  schools  of  our  public- 
school  system,  with  the  exception  of  the  course  in  modeling,  which  is  not 
practicable  by  reason  of  the  material  necessary  to  be  used  in  the  process 
of  instruction.     The  use  of  clay  and  the  tools  in  modeling  require  the 


Articles  of  Toilet  in  Bronze  and  Other  Metals.— From  Pompeii. 

convenience  of  an  atelier.    There  are  difficulties  also  in  drawing  from  nat- 
ural objects  in  public  schools,  but  these  must  be  overcome. 

The  Primary  Schools. 

1.  The  course  of  instruction  in  the  primary  schools  should  be  of  the 
simplest  character — the  pupil  to  be  accustomed  to  the  sound  and  meaning 
of  geometrical  terms. 

2.  To  draw  on  slates  from  blackboard  illustrations  the  simple  lines, 
plane  surfaces  of  plane  geometrical  figures,  such  as  squares,  triangles,  and 
some  of  their  combinations.  This  work  should  all  be  free-hand,  and  done 
on  the  blackboard  by  the  teacher,  the  pupil  following,  making  the  same 
forms  upon  the  slate.  These  should  be  taken  home,  and  completed  more 
carefully  upon  the  slate,  or  on  paper,  as  the  teacher  may  think  best. 

3.  Drawing  from  memory.  From  time  to  time  the  teacher  should  re- 
quire each  pupil  to  draw  from  memory  some  part  of  the  exercises  he  has 
already  performed.  He  should  also  be  encouraged  to  draw  objects  of  a 
simple  character  from  nature,  and  to  draw  any  object  he  may  wish  to 
describe. 


METHOD  APPLIED  TO  PRIMARY  SCHOOLS. 


137 


ADVANCED  GRADES  OF  THE  PRIMARY  SCHOOLS. 

1.  Free-hand  drawing  of  plane  geometrical  figures,  with  some  of 
their  combinations.  The  teacher  should  explain  the  meaning  of  sim- 
ple geometrical  terms  until  they  are  understood  by  the  pupil,  and  he 
can  answer  questions  concerning  them.  From  simpler  geometrical  sur- 
faces the  teacher  will  proceed  to  more  advanced  forms  and  their  com- 
binations. 

2.  Combination  of  polygons.  These  will  also  be  made  by  the  teacher 
upon  the  blackboard,  the  scholar  following  upon  slate  or  paper  with  the 
free-hand  ;  his  work  to  be  verified  by  the  aid  of  rule  and  compass. 

3.  Application  of  ornament  to  geometrical  figures.  The  ornament 
will  be  drawn  with  free-hand  upon  a  geometrical  figure,  of  straight  or 
curved  lines,  with  their  combinations.  Sometimes  the  ornament  will  be 
drawn  from  nature.  These  should  be  made  upon  slates  or  paper,  and  elab- 
orated at  home. 


Miliarium  Bronze  Brazier. — From  Pompeii. 

4.  Drawing  from  memory.  From  time  to  time  the  teacher  should  re- 
quire of  each  pupil  to  reproduce,  from  memory,  a  part  or  the  whole  of 
any  of  the  preceding  exercises.  These  studies  must  at  first  be  made  in 
the  class,  and  more  carefully  completed  upon  paper  at  home. 

5.  Explanation  of  the  fundamental  laws  of  color,  in  an  elementary 
way,  as  seen  in  plain  tints,  and  illustrated,  when  possible,  by  natural  ob- 
jects— such  as  leaves  and  flowers.  In  all  instruction  upon  this  question, 
the  teacher  is  advised  to  consult  Bezold,  "  Theory  of  Color." 


138 


AET  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 


ADVANCED  GRADES  OF  THE  PRIMARY,  OR  FIRST  GRADES   OF  THE  INTER- 
MEDIATE  OR  GRAMMAR  SCHOOLS. 

1.  Principles  of  projection.  The  teacher  will  make  outline  drawings 
of  projections  upon  the  blackboard.  The  pupil  will  follow  this  work 
either  upon  paper  or  on  slates ;  in  either  case  to  be  completed  more  care- 
fully at  home. 

2.  Elements  of  perspective.  The  same  method  will  be  pursued  as 
noted  in  the  teaching  of  projection. 

3.  Drawing  of  solids  from  nature.  These  may  be  fruits,  flowers,  vases, 
pitchers,  or  others  objects  of  graceful  form,  also  solids  of  squares,  poly- 
gons, etc.  These  solids  and  other  objects  will  be  placed  upon  a  platform 
before  the  blackboard.  The  pupil  will  draw  from  sight,  and  verify  the 
exactitude  of  his  work  by  the  application  of  the  rules  of  perspective. 


Intermediate  or  Grammar  Schools. 

FIRST   GRADE. 

1.  Shaded  drawing  from  solids,  such  as  prisms,  at  first  isolated  and 
then  grouped.  The  same  exercises  with  spherical  bodies,  and  after  that 
the  two  forms  grouped  together. 

2.  Programme  studies  of  shaded  drawings  of  fragments  of  architect- 
ure taken  from  antique  monuments,  pottery,  furniture,  and  other  familiar 
forms,  which  must  be  graceful  and  symmetrical.     The  teacher  must  give 

oral  expositions  of  the  style  and  char- 
acter of  the  architectural  fragments, 
and  the  place  they  occupy  in  build- 
ings and  monuments. 

3.  Exercises  from  memory  of  the 
above-named  lessons. 

4.  Application  of  geometrical  fig- 
ures and  natural  objects  to  ornament. 
The  same  principles  and  proceedings 
will  be  followed  as  indicated  in  the 
previous  degree,  except  that  a  more 

progressive  step  will  be  taken  in  the  complication  of  the  arrangement  of 
forms  and  ornaments. 

5.  Study  from  memory.  The  same  manner  of  proceeding  as  defined 
in  the  preceding  degree. 

6.  The  explanation  by  the  teacher  of  harmony  of  colors,  with  illustra- 
tions in  polychromes  of  plain  tints  and  by  juxtaposition. 


Marble  Vase.— From  Pompeii. 


METHOD  APPLIED  TO  HIGH  SCHOOLS.  139 


SECOND    GKADE. 

1.  Studies  of  shaded  drawings  from  fragments  of  ornaments  from  an- 
tique sculptures  of  the  Middle  Ages  and  the  Renaissance.  The  teacher 
will  give  oral  explanations  upon  ornamentation,  its  sources  and  its  applica- 
tions, according  to  the  material  employed  and  the  laws  of  its  style. 

2.  Shaded  drawings  of  fragments  of  heads  after  casts  from  the  chef- 
d^c&uvres  of  the  antique.  The  teacher  will  give  oral  explanations  of  the 
anatomy  and  muscular  construction  of  the  head  in  general,  especially  of 
the  fragments  used  in  the  studies. 

3.  Shaded  drawings  of  masks  from  casts  of  the  chef-d'^muvres  of  the 
antique. 

4.  Drawings  from  memory  of  the  preceding  exercises  in  this  degree. 

5.  Continuation  of  the  study  of  projection. 

6.  Continuation  of  the  study  of  linear  perspective. 

High  Schools. 

1.  Study  of  shaded  drawings  of  different  styles  of  ornament,  after 
casts  of  the  chef-d'^ceuvres  of  antiquity,  the  Middle  Ages,  and  the  Renais- 
sance. These  models  should  be  the  best  that  can  be  found.  In  this,  as 
in  similar  cases,  they  must  be  selected  with  knowledge  and  care.  The 
teacher  will  make  oral  explanations  of  the  styles,  origin  of  each  object, 
and  its  application  to  the  materials  employed  in  its  construction,  and  the 
place  it  occupied. 

2.  Shaded  drawings  from  busts  from  casts  of  antique  sculpture.  The 
teacher  will  make  oral  explanations  upon  the  style,  character,  and  artistic 
school  to  which  the  model  belongs. 

3.  Drawing  from  memory  of  exercises  already  performed  in  this  de- 
gree. 

4.  Continuation  of  the  study  of  projection,  plane  sections,  intersection 
of  bodies,  development  of  lines,  geometrical  outlines  of  shadows. 

5.  Study  of  perspective  in  its  more  abstruse  problems,  angular  and  ob- 
lique ;  of  proper  shadows,  and  shadows  reflected  in  water,  etc. 

6.  Architectural  nomenclature ;  oral  explanation  of  the  meaning  of 
terms,  with  sketches  ;  drawings  upon  the  blackboard  illustrating  the  same. 

7.  Proportions  of  the  human  head,  in  relation  to  the  body ;  study  of 
the  anatomy  of  the  bones  and  muscles  of  the  head. 

RfiSUMfi   OF  THIS  PROGRAMME. 

It  is  claimed  that  the  above  programme  has  the  merit  of  extreme  sim- 
plicity.   It  comprises  instruction  in  the  elements  of  the  art  of  design,  and 


140 


ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 


Romano-British  Caster  Ware. 


the  elements  of  the  sciences  with  studies  from  nature,  constituting  the 
fundamental  studies  necessary  to  the  artist  as  well  as  the  workman. 

Arrived  at  this  point  of  instruction,  the  pupil  has  had  the  opportu- 
nity to  learn  linear  design,  descriptive  geometry,  projections,  linear  per- 
spective, and  shading.  He  has  been  instructed  in  ornamental  design,  the 
forms  of  foliage,  and  tlie  most  important  part  of  the  human  figure,  the 
bust.  He  has  a  general  idea  of  the  proportion  and  anatomy  of  the  human 
body,  as  well  as  of  architectural  nomenclature.  Thus  prepared,  and  know- 
ing design  in  its  two  fundamental  expressions,  the  pupil  has  the  element- 
ary knowledge  necessary  to  undertake  the  study  of  different  specialties. 

The  combination  of  studies  which  has  been  defined  constitutes  a  gen- 
uine and  complete  programme  of  the  elementary  teaching  of  design  in  its 
two  practical  expressions.  First,  geometrical  drawing  as  far  as  projection. 
Second,  artistic  drawing,  or  drawing  at  sight  from  nature  and  ornamenta- 
tion, and  of  the  most  important  parts  of  the  human  figure.  In  this  meth- 
od of  instruction,  mechanical  copies  from  flat  examples  are  suppressed. 
There  are  carried  on  at  the  same  time  geometrical  drawing,  artistic  draw- 
ing, and  drawing  from  memory,  all  of  which  are  inseparably  united  in 
the  general  idea  of  design.  These  are  the  principles  which  constitute  the 
method. 

DRAWING  FROM  RELIEF. 
This  method  of  elementary  instruction,  because  it  teaches  the  simple 
fundamental  rules  which  are  the  base  of  industrial  and  high  art,  is  proper 
for  all  art  instruction.     It  is  the  course  of  study  to  be  pursued  alike  in 


TIME  OCCUPIED  BY  THE  STUDENT. 


141 


the  public  schools,  in  schools  of  design,  and  by  the  individual  who  may 
not  be  able  to  obtain  the  advantages  of  school  instruction.  To  all  classes 
of  workers  this  method  is  of  real  value.  To  the  student  who  desires  to 
become  a  painter,  it  teaches  the  two  methods  of  proceeding  most  impor- 
.  tant  in  the  practice  of  drawing.  These  constitute  the  scientific  knowledge 
necessary  for  rendering  forms  familiar — projection  and  perspective. 

The  student  who  hopes  to  become  a  sculptor  gains  the  exact  knowl- 
edge of  geometrical  drawing.  The 
student  of  architecture  finds  that 
knowledge  of  perspective,  projec- 
tion, and  geometrical  drawing  so 
essential  to  his  profession.  To 
the  workman  whose  occupation 
is  in  any  way  influenced  by  art, 
the  study  of  geometrical  drawing, 
which  is  the  practical  base  of  all 
mechanical  occupations,  is  of  im- 
mense value. 

The  advantage  of  such  element- 
ary instruction  will  be  the  same 
for  all  those  who  intend  to  follow 
the  exact  sciences  —  to  the  civil 
and  military  engineer,  the  invent- 
or, the  surveyor,  to   all  of  those 

who,  in  their  ulterior  studies,  have  Romano-British  Um,  made  of  Red  Clay. 

need  of  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  science  of  geometry,  and  especially 
descriptive  geometry. 

THE  TIME  OCCUPIED  IN  THESE  STUDIES. 

The  question  of  the  amount  of  time  to  be  devoted  to  drawing  in  the 
public  schools  is  worthy  of  serious  consideration.  At  the  recent  distribu- 
tion (August  11th,  1875)  of  prizes  to  the  students  of  the  Ecole  des  Beaux 
Arts  at  Paris,  the  Marquis  De  Cheunevrieres,  Director  of  Fine  Arts  for 
France,  urged  the  value  of  art  education  in  the  public  schools,  and  an- 
nounced that  it  had  been  concluded  by  the  authorities  to  devote  not  less 
than  two  hours  per  week  to  this  study  in  the  primary  schools,  and  at 
least  three  hours  in  the  higher  schools.  The  Belgian  Government,  for 
the  same  purpose,  has  taken  from  two  to  three  hours  in  its  communal 
schools.  In  Germany,  the  time  allotted  to  art  studies  varies  according  to 
the  character  of  the  school.  In  the  English  elementary  schools,  this  in- 
struction is  confined  to  the  two  hours  set  apart  for  secular  education. 


142 


ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 


,  Professor  Smith,  Superintendent  of  Art  Education  for  the  State  of 
Massachusetts,  thinks  two  hours,  divided  into  lessons  of  thirty  minutes 
each,  the  least  time  that  should  be  given  for  weekly  art  teaching  in  the 
primary  schools.  In  the  Cincinnati  schools  there  is  a  curious  inequality 
in  the  allowance  of  time.  The  earlier  grades  of  the  district  schools  have 
three  lessons  of  thirty  minutes  each,  and  the  later  ninety  minutes,  while 
the  high  schools  have  only  forty  minutes  each  week. 

The  practice  in  most  of  the  schools  where  art  instruction  has  become 
established  agrees  with  the  opinion  of  competent  judges,  who  seem  to 
fix  upon  two  hours  in  the  primary  schools  and  three  hours  in  the  higher 
schools  each  week,  as  the  least  time  which  ought  to  be  given  to  art  teach- 
ing. The  course  of  instruction  which  is  here  offered  for  adoption  is  adapt- 
ed either  to  the  limited  time  allowed  by  the  exigencies  of  public-school 
education,  or  to  the  larger  space  permitted  in  schools  of  design,  either  for 
night  or  day,  where  the  session  of  several  hours  is  devoted  to  this  special 
purpose. 


Bronze  Water  Pitchers. — From  Pompeii. 
SUPERIOR  INSTRUCTION. 

In  the  preceding  pages  we  have  given  a  method  of  instruction  which 
will  carry  the  student  through  the  course  which  might  form  a  part  of 
most  of  the  public  -  school  systems  in  this  country.  This  method  would 
also  serve  the  purpose  of  elementary  education  in  schools  of  design.  It 
brings  the  student  up  to  that  point  where  the  arts  of  design  separate 
into  three  distinct  branches,  which  unite  color  with  drawing,  and  model- 
ing with  construction.  The  arts  applied  to  industry,  proceeding  directly 
from  the  arts  of  design,  have  the  same  division ;  they  comprise  the  oc- 
cupations which  are  related  to  painting,  to  sculpture,  and  also  to  archi- 
tecture. 

This  superior  instruction,  then,  should  be  divided  into  three  distinct 
branches,  each  of  which  has  a  particular  development,  forming  the  base 
of  special  instruction  in  the  arts  as  well  as  in  a  thousand  and  one  busi- 


COURSE  FOR  SUPERIOR  ART  EDUCATION. 


143 


Celtic  Urn. 


ness  occupations.  At  this  point  a  doubt- 
ful question  arises,  whether  or  not  it  is 
the  duty  of  the  State  to  continue  the  of- 
fice, which  up  to  this  time  it  has  benign- 
ly held,  of  instructor.  With  almost  aU 
of  the  European  nations  this  superior  in- 
struction is  in  one  or  another  way  pro- 
vided for  by  the  State.  But  it  would  ap- 
pear as  if  that  kind  of  education  which 
approaches  the  practical  application  of  the 
arts  to  the  industries  ought  to  be  at  the  ex- 
pense of  those  industries.  It  is  not  often 
that  the  student  can  sustain  any  propor- 
tion of  such  cost.  Ought  not  the  merchant 
and  manufacturer,  at  this  stage  of  educa- 
tion, with  the  practical  means  at  their  disposal  to  carry  forward  and  make 
complete  the  unity  of  art,  do  as  the  Union  Centrale  of  Paris  has  done  ? 

COURSE   FOR  SUPERIOR  INSTRUCTION. 

Painting. 

Artistic  Instruction. 

Course  of  drawing  and  painting,  and  the  occupations  which  depend 
upon  it. 

1.  Studies  of  shaded  drawings  from  torsos,  and  casts  of  fragments  of 
the  chef-d^muvres  of  antiquity ;  studies  made  of  landscapes  from  nature. 

2.  Studies  of  shaded  drawings  from  bass-reliefs  of  casts  from  the  chef- 
d^muvres  of  antiquity  and  the  Renaissance. 

3.  Studies  of  shaded  drawings  from  casts  of  antique  statues. 

4.  Painting  from  plaster  casts,  and  from  nature. 

Practical  Course. — The  teacher  will  make  oral  explanations  of  the 
character,  style,  and  school  to  which  the  models  belong.  Consult  the 
following  authorities  upon  the  subject :  "  History  of  Art,"  by  Winckel- 
mann ;  "  History  of  Antique  Sculpture,"  by  Emeric  David ;  "  Grammar  of 
Painting,"  by  Charles  Blanc ;  "  The  Principles  of  Harmony,"  etc.,  by  Chev- 
reul  (Bohn's  Library) ;  Bezold's  "  Theory  of  Color." 

5.  Exercise  from  memory. 

These  exercises  will  be  regulated  by  the  professor.  The  pupil  will 
reproduce  from  memory  the  whole  or  a  part  of  one  or  more  of  the  studies 
of  this  degree. 

6.  Picturesque  anatomy. 

7.  Perspective,  and  application  of  its  rules. 


144 


AKT  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTEY. 


FIFTH    DEGREE. 

Course  showing  the  application  of  the  foregoing  studies  to  the  occupa- 
tions where  the  art  of  painting  is  concerned.     One 
and  a  half  to  two  hours  each  day. 

1.  Studies  of  different  styles  of  ornamentation, 
with  its  various  relations  to  painting  from  ancient 
down  to  modern  times. 

2.  Painting  from  nature.  Objects  arranged 
"with  regard  to  form  and  color ;  plants,  flowers,  an- 
imals, human  figures,  etc. 

3.  Composition  of  objects,  painted  and  drawn  ; 
studies  of  details  which  shall  have  relation  to  the 
occupations  depending  upon  painting.  These 
studies  may  be  made  from  photographs,  engrav- 
ings, and  casts  from  nature ;  works  on  decorative 
art  and  ornamentation,  viz.,  "  Specimens  of  Orna- 
mental Art,"  by  Louis  Gruner ;  "  Principles  of  Dec- 
orative Design,"  by  C.  Dresser ;  "  Monochromatic 
Ornament,"  by  M.  A.  Racinet. 

For  explanations  upon  the  theory  of  the  art  of 
design,  and  history  of  ornament,  consult  J.  E.  Max- 
well, "Experiments  on  Color  as  perceived  by  the 
Eye ;"  "  Grammar  of  Painting,"  by  Charles  Blanc ; 
"The  Theory  of  Color,"  by  Bezold,  translated  by  S.  Pt.  Koehler;  "En- 
cyclopedia of  Ornament,"  by  Henry  Shaw ;  "  Grammar  of  Ornament," 
by  Owen  Jones. 

Sculpture. 

Course  of  modeling ;  sculpture,  and  the  occupations  which  are  related 
to  sculpture ;  design. 

1.  Practice  in  modeling  of  busts,  torsos,  and  fragments  from  plaster 
casts  of  the  chef-d^ceuvres  oi  antiquity,  and  from  casts  of  ornaments  of 
antiquity,  the  Middle  Ages,  and  the  Renaissance,  and  from  natural  fruit 
and  foliage. 

2.  Studies  from  casts,  bass-reliefs  from  chef-d^muvrea  from  the  antique 
and  the  Renaissance. 

3.  Modeling  of  the  complete  figure  from  the  antique.  The  teacher 
should  make  oral  explanations  of  the  style,  character,  and  schools  to  which 
the  models  belong. 


Etruscan  Vase  iu  Black 
Basalt. 


ART  STUDIES  APPLIED  TO  ARCHITECTURE.  145 

FIFTH   DEGKEE. 

Course  of  application  to  the  occupations  wliich  are  related  to  sculpture. 

1.  Study  of  different  styles  of  ornamentation  in  their  various  relations 
to  sculpture  from  ancient  up  to  modern  times. 

2.  Modeling  from  nature ;  trophies  and  their  accessories ;  plants  and 
flowers;  animals  from  still-life,  and  living  objects. 

3.  Compositions  of  general  effects  and  studies  in  detail,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  use  in  construction,  to  be  modeled  in  clay  and  wax.  These  stud- 
ies to  be  in  harmony  with  the  different  occupations  which  relate  to  sculpt- 
ure. These  studies  will  be  made  in  accordance  with  subjects  given  out  by 
the  teacher.  The  studies  given  in  the  last  three  numbers  will  be  made 
from  photographs,  engravings,  from  nature,  and  by  consulting  standard 
works  like  the  following :  "  Specimens  of  Ornamental  Art,"  by  Louis  Gru- 
ner ;  ''Works  in  Gold,  Silver,  and  Other  Metals  during  the  Middle  Ages," 
by  H.  King ;  "  Forged  Iron  Work  of  the  Middle  Ages  and  Renaissance," 
by  Hefner  Atheneck ;  treatises  upon  ceramic  art  by  Brongniart,  Jacque- 
mart,  Marryat,  etc. 

4.  Lectures  upon  the  theory  of  the  arts  of  design  and  ornament.  Con- 
sult in  this  relation  the  following  works :  "  Grammar  of  the  Art  of  De- 
sign," by  Charles  Blanc ;  "  History  of  the  Industrial  Arts,  from  the  Mid- 
dle Ages  to  the  Epoch  of  the  Renaissance,"  by  Jules  Labarte ;  "  Grammar 
of  Ornament,"  by  Owen  Jones ;  "  History  of  Ornament,"  by  Guilmart ; 
"  Encyclopedia  of  Ornament,"  by  Henry  Shaw ;  "  Fragments  of  Archi- 
tecture," by  Chabert ;  Colling's  "  Art  Foliage,"  etc. 

Architecture. 

FOURTH    DEGREE. 

Course  of  architectural  studies  for  architects,  and  for  the  occupations 
which  relate  to  architecture  and  construction. 

1.  Practice  in  the  use  of  wash  coloring,  India  ink,  sepia,  etc. 

2.  Definitions  and  outlines  of  moldings. 

3.  Drawing,  by  projection  of  the  orders  of  architecture,  from  relief. 

4.  Assemblage  of  orders.  Drawing  these  combinations  seen  in  front 
and  obliquely. 

5.  Continuation  of  the  study  of  projections ;  descriptive  geometry. 

6.  Technology  and  knowledge  of  materials,  and  their  relation  to  con- 
struction. Consult  "  Technology  of  Buildings,"  by  Th.  Chateau  ;  "  Coui-sc 
of  Constructions,"  by  A.  Demarest ;  numerous  works  upon  building  con- 
struction by  Davidson  and  by  Dobson  ;  Gwilt's  "  Encyclopedia  of  Archi- 
tecture," etc. 

10 


146 


AET  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 


FIFTH   DEGREE. 

Course  of  application  of  occupations  which  relate  to  architecture. 

1.  Masonry  ;  foundations,  walls,  and   different  kinds    of  vaults   and 
arches. 

2.  Stone-cutting. 

3.  Carpentry ;  employment  of  iron,  stone,  terra  cotta,  etc.,  in  building. 

4.  Joiner's  work ;  windows,  staircases,  doors,  wainscoting,  etc. 

5.  Mechanics ;  elements  of  machinery,  etc. 

6.  Continuation  of  the  study  of  projection  and  descriptive  geometry. 
In  all  of  the  above  studies  the  pupil  should  be  required  to  execute 

works  and  make  compositions  in  those  subjects  which  relate  to  his  special 
occupation. 

Lectures  upon  the  theory  of  the  arts  of  design  and  history  of  orna- 
mentation. 

In  the  study  of  architecture  consult  works  upon  architecture,  by  Yio- 
let  le  Due ;  "Architecture  and  the  Arts  which  relate  to  it,"  by  Gilhaband  ; 

"  Grammar  of  Design,"  by  Charles  Blanc ; 

"  History  of  Ornament,"  by  Guilmart,  etc. ; 

"  Polychromatic  Ornament,"  by  M.  A.  Ra- 

cinet. 

PROGRAMME  OF  INSTRUCTION  MAY  BE  VA- 
RIED IN  THE  INTEREST  OF  SPECIAL  LO- 
CALITIES. 

The  plan  of  studies,  beginning  with  the 
elementary  course  of  instruction,  and  end- 
ing with  the  fine  arts,  has  been  given  in  a 
condensed  form  so  that  it  can  be  applied  to 
public  schools,  academies  of  design,  or  other 
institutions  for  artistic  education.  As  it 
now  stands,  it  is  a  scheme  based  upon  the 
principles  of  the  science  of  geometry,  upon 
nature,  and  aesthetics.  It  is  a  logical  and 
symmetrical  construction,  within  the  limits 
of  which  each  educational  institution  can 
work  in  its  own  way  and  according  to  its 
peculiar  necessities.  The  art  education  of  a  city  whose  manufactures  are 
silks  and  other  textile  fabrics  will  be  diverted  into  a  different  channel 
from  that  of  a  city  which  manufactures  wood,  pottery,  iron  and  other 
metals. 

Up  to  the  point  where  the  course  of  study,  branching  off,  takes  up 


British  Batter-cup— Yciu- 1600. 


ART  RELATED  TO  PAINTING.  147 

painting,  sculpture,  and  architecture,  the  same  method  of  instruction  gov- 
erns all  occupations ;  yet  even  here  a  discreet  liberty  must  be  given  to 
the  teacher  in  each  locality  in  the  execution  of  these  general  rules.  The 
schools  of  line  arts,  the  schools  of  design,  and  all  of  those  higher  institu- 
tions of  art  study  will  undertake  that  special  instruction  comprised  in 
painting,  sculpture,  and  architecture.  These  schools  may  teach  all  of 
these  arts,  or  devote  themselves  to  any  one  of  them,  or  to  one  or  more 
of  the  occupations  which  relate  to  them ;  but  it  is  very  certain  that  only 
in  such  special  schools  can  that  most  important  part  of  art  education, 
"  the  application  of  art  to  industry,"  be  accomplished. 

The  Fine  Arts. 

APPLICATION   OF   AKT   TO   INDUSTRY. 

Now  that  it  has  been  shown  how  art  education  may  be  acquired,  it 
would  be  well  to  define  the  office  of  the  arts,  and  in  a  general  way  show 
to  what  industries  they  may  be  applied. 

Painting. 
Painting  as  a  fine  art  may  be  divided  into  the  following  classes : 

1.  Monumental  painting. 

2.  Religious  and  historical. 

3.  Genre  and  portrait. 

4.  Landscape  and  animal. 

5.  Artistic  engraving  on  copper  and  wood ;  etching. 

6.  Artistic  lithography. 

THE   APPLICATION   OF   PAINTING   TO   INDUSTRY. 

This  may  be  divided  into  three  categories;  the  first  two  belong  to 
color  and  design,  the  last  to  design  alone.  The  first  may  be  classified  as 
follows : 

1.  Decoration ;  painting  in  fresco,  etc. 

2.  Polychrome  and  sculptural  decoration. 

3.  Painting  upon  glass  and  porcelain. 

4.  Use  of  color  upon  paper  and  other  materials  for  pictorial  purposes. 
In  all  of  these  four  classes  the  applied  arts  are  so  closely  allied  to  the 

fine  arts  that  at  times  it  is  difficult  to  separate  them.  The  finest  artists 
have  employed  their  talents  in  the  decoration  of  walls  and  ceilings. 
Painting  of  glass  and  porcelain  often  passes  into  the  field  of  high  art,  and 
sculptural  painting  often  becomes  a  work  of  art. 

The  second  category  comprises  a  thousand  objects  —  antique,  Byzan- 
tine, Arabic,  Asiatic,  those  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  modern  times ;  all 


148  ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 

of  which  receive  their  value  and  beauty  by  the  application  of  the  genius 
of  art.     Among  these  are : 

1.  Polychrome  painting. 

2.  Mosaics. 

3.  Painted  glass ;  tiles. 

4.  Woven  fabrics,  such  as  shawls  and  carpets,  cashmeres,  embroidered 
cloths,  etc. 

The  third  category  employs  design  almost  altogether : 

1.  Engraving  on  copper-plate. 

2.  Engraving  upon  wood,  metals,  and  glass. 

3.  Lithography  and  chromo-litliography. 

4.  Typographical  characters,  initials,  and  letters  of  fancy. 

5.  Penmanship,  etc. 

Sculpture. 

The  separation  of  the  industrial  arts  from  the  fine  arts  becomes  yet 
more  difficult  to  establish  in  sculpture  than  in  painting.  Statuary  and 
bass-relief,  the  work  of  the  greatest  artists,  often  form  a  part  of  monu- 
mental ornamentation  which  is  subordinate  to  the  architectural  construc- 
tion, so  as  to  confuse  what  is  really  a  work  of  art  with  merely  decorative 
sculpture.  The  same  is  often  true  of  bronze  and  other  works  in  metal. 
The  works  of  sculpture  may  be  divided  into  live  classes.  The  first  is 
sculpture  proper,  which  is  valued  for  itself  as  a  work  of  art,  as  fol- 
lows : 

1.  Statuary. 

2.  Decorative  sculpture  on  stone,  wood,  etc. 

3.  Moldings  and  reductions  in  plaster,  etc. 

The  second  class  includes  statuary,  bronzes,  reproductions  of  statuary, 
and  ornaments  in  metals,  by  any  of  the  processes  known  to  art.  This 
class  comprises : 

1.  Statuary  and  bass-relief. 

2.  Artistic  bronzes. 

3.  Bronzes  gilt  and  enameled. 

4.  Iron  and  other  metals  worked  with  the  hammer  and  at  the  forge. 

The  third  class  comprises  that  special  work  where  iron  and  the  pre- 
cious metals,  gold  and  silver,  are  fashioned  in  repousse  into  various  ob- 
jects, vases,  etc.,  which  has  always  been  a  fine  art. 

1.  The  work  of  the  chisel  and  repousse  combined. 

2.  Stamping  in  metals. 

The  fourth  class  comprises  the  work  of  the  jeweler,  goldsmith,  and 
silversmith. 


ART  RELATED  TO  ARCHITECTURE.  149 

Thejifth  class  includes : 

1.  The  working  in  cameos,  medals,  and  other  sculpture  of  small  di- 
mensions. 

2.  Engraving  in  relief ;  decoration  of  metals ;  inlaying,  etc. 

Architecture. 

In  another  place  reference  has  been  made  to  the  art  of  architecture 
and  its  condition  in  the  United  States.  The  industries  which  relate  to 
architecture  are  those  which  are  based  upon  the  harmonious  proportions 
of  forms  purely  geometrical.  Architecture,  when  it  treats  of  objects  of 
utility,  is  an  industrial  art.  Its  great  works  may  be  separated  from  those 
which  relate  to  objects  of  household  use  and  ornamentation,  calling  the 
latter  "  inferior  constructions  belonging  to  architecture."  These  we  can 
divide  into  three  categories.  The  first  comprises  the  ceramic  art,  from 
the  simple  cup  in  constant  use  to  the  most  precious  ornamental  vase,  or 
to  any  article  of  pottery.     These  may  be  subdivided  as  follows : 

1.  Pottery  of  a  useful  kind. 

2.  Pottery,  vases,  cups,  etc.,  for  ornamental  purposes. 

3.  Yases,  lamps,  etc.,  mounted  in  metal. 

The  second  class  comprises  glass-ware,  from  the  simplest  drinking-glass 
to  the  most  costly  pieces,  mounted  in  gold  or  bronze.  The  following  is 
the  subdivision : 

1.  Glass-ware  in  all  its  varieties. 

2.  Bohemian  and  Venetian  glass. 

3.  Crystals,  white,  colored,  and  painted,  etc. 

4.  Mounted  crystals. 

The  third  cla^s  comprises  all  kinds  of  furniture.  Every  thing  that  has 
to  do  with  the  furniture,  so  called,  of  buildings,  is  closely  allied  to  archi- 
tecture, because  furniture  has  its  intimate  relation  to  the  form,  style,  size, 
etc.,  of  the  building  and  room  where  it  is  placed,  and  because  of  its  own 
proper  form,  whose  construction  requires  architectural  skill.  This  class 
may  be  divided  as  follows : 

1.  Cabinet  -  work ;  furniture  made  by  the  use  of  the  saw,  plane,  and 
lathe. 

2.  Carved  work. 

3.  Wooden  furniture,  combined  with  bronze,  porcelain,  tiles,  etc. 

4.  Musical  instruments,  such  as  organs,  pianos,  etc. 

The  general  classification  which  has  been  given  of  the  occupations 
which  relate  to  painting,  sculpture,  and  architecture  is  based  upon  the 
aesthetic  principles  of  each  branch.  There  are  infinite  applications  of 
these,  which  wander  into  every  channel  of  commerce  and  trade.     It  is 


150 


ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 


Lamps  aud  Ornameuts  in  Bronze  and  Terra  Cotta.— Found  at  PompeiL 

the  practice  of  these  principles  which  has  given  to  the  world  Phidias  and 
Raphael,  Palissy  and  Wedgwood,  Ghiberti  and  Benvenuto  Cellini,  and  the 
brilliant  hosts  of  artists  and  artisans  who  have  filled  the  world  with  ob- 
jects of  beauty  and  utility. 

THE  TEACHER. 

Under  the  system  of  instruction  which  has  been  described,  it  will  be 
perceived  that  the  teacher  is  required  to  fulfill  a  most  important  part. 
He  must  be  thoroughly  informed  of  the  subjects  to  be  taught,  for  upon 
the  clearness  of  his  oral  explanations  and  blackboard  illustrations  must  de- 
pend largely  the  progress  of  the  pupil.  To  a  certain  extent,  text-books  are 
necessary  in  teaching  the  art  of  design ;  but,  especially  in  elementary  in- 
struction, the  pupil  can  best  be  taught  by  what  he  sees  upon  the  black- 
board, with  its  meaning  explained  by  voice  and  hand.  The  education  of 
the  teacher  must  be  the  well-ordered  work  of  the  normal  school,  and  this 
brings  us  to  the  necessity  for  the  establishment  of  special  institutions  of 
art,  and  art  applied  to  industry,  which  will  be  at  the  same  time  schools  of 
practical  application  and  normal  schools. 


OFFICE  OF  THE  TEACHEK.  151 

The  problem  wliicli  at  once  presented  itself  for  solution  in  Belgium, 
England,  and  other  nations,  comes  to  us  in  this  country  with  still  greater 
force.  In  order  to  have  art  education  in  the  schools,  it  is  necessary  to 
have  teachers.  The  purpose  of  a  normal  school  is  to  educate  teachers  of 
both  sexes,  who  should  be  familiar  with  the  practice  of  the  arts  and  their 
scientific  principles,  and  capable  of  applying  them  to  the  daily  needs  of 
industrial  life.  It  should  furnish  teachers  for  special  schools  of  design  as 
well  as  for  public  schools. 

Our  public  schools  should  have  professors  whose  entire  service  will  be 
devoted  to  art  instruction.  Besides  these,  however,  all  the  teachers  must 
be  capable  of  giving  instruction  in  the  elementary  principles  of  design. 
The  creation  of  a  normal  school  is  one  of  the  fundamental  bases  of  a  se- 
rious teaching  of  the  art  of  design.  It  is  not  always  possible  out  of  the 
ordinary  school  of  design  to  form  teachers  fit  for  the  work  of  suj)erintend- 
ents  in  public  schools,  or  professors  in  the  higher  schools  of  design.  The 
studies  which  prepare  the  person  who  is  to  be  a  teacher  have  a  special  ar- 
tistic and  scientific  importance,  which  embrace  the  whole  field  of  obser- 
vation. The  ordinary  school  of  design  is  insutiicient,  for  it  only  provides 
for  the  student  who  desires  to  fit  himself  for  a  certain  occupation,  and 
who  pursues  only  a  limited  range  of  studies. 

The  conditions  for  the  establishment  of  a  normal  school  cover  a  larger 
scope  of  needs  than  any  other.  Besides  all  the  working  material  of  an 
ordinary  school  of  design,  it  should  have  a  museum  of  art  and  of  applied 
arts ;  a  complete  library,  artistic  and  scientific ;  a  complete  collection  of 
models,  and  an  atelier  for  the  reproduction  of  models. 

Whenever  any  state  or  city  undertakes  art  education,  it  should  begin 
with  the  normal  school.  It  may  be  difficult  to  persuade  the  school  author- 
ities of  the  necessity  of  first  establishing  the  normal  school.  When  organ- 
ized upon  the  plan  briefly  sketched  above,  the  question  of  expense  will  be 
urged.  To  make  a  collection  of  models,  even  not  to  speak  of  a  library 
and  museum,  requires  practical  knowledge  and  taste.  Excellent  examples 
of  what  is  desirable  in  the  way  of  plaster  casts,  large  and  small,  may  be 
found  in  the  Athenaeum  Gallery,  in  Boston ;  in  the  Academy  of  Design, 
in  New  York ;  and  in  the  School  of  Design  of  the  University  of  Cincin- 
nati. The  other  parts  of  a  collection  of  models,  such  as  geometrical  solids, 
casts  of  natural  objects,  vegetable  and  animal,  architectural  and  other  frag- 
ments, are  inexpensive,  and  can  easily  be  obtained  from  D.  Brucciani,  No. 
40  Russell  Street,  Co  vent  Garden,  London,  or  from  the  Louvre,  in  Paris. 


152  ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

CONCLUSION. 

R^suin^  upon  Art  Education. — Suppleraeutary  Chapter  npou  the  Centennial  Exposition. 
— Alt  Industries  at  the  Exposition.  —  Influence  of  the  Ait  Industries  of  Foreign 
Countries  upon  tliose  of  the  United  States. — Brief  Rfeuni6  of  the  Art  ludustries  of 
All  the  Nations  at  the  Exposition. 

We  have  briefly  outlined  a  programme  of  instruction,  beginning  at 
the  elementary  principles  of  drawing,  which,  progressing  upward  in  art 
and  science,  arrives  at  the  practical  application  of  the  arts  of  painting, 
sculpture,  and  architecture  to  the  various  industries. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  earlier  studies  should  be  conducted  in 
the  public  schools,  but  when  that  point  is  reached  where  the  attempt  is  to 
be  made  to  teach  the  application  of  art  to  industry,  we  find  that  the  re- 
stricted limits  of  the  public  schools  no  longer  answer  the  purpose. 

It  is  only  in  schools  of  design  and  industrial  schools  specially  organ- 
ized with  this  intention  that  this  completion  of  the  artistic  work  can  be  ac- 
complished. In  the  pursuit  of  these  studies 
the  art  influence  must  dominate.  If  there  is 
to  be  formed  a  genuine  taste,  if  the  faculties 
of  composition,  invention,  and  design  are  to 
be  created,  or  aroused  into  action,  it  will  be 
brought  about  only  through  the  study  of  the 
beautiful  in  art  and  nature.  It  is  for  this  rea- 
son that  all  students,  no  matter  what  occupa- 
tion they  are  destined  to  follow,  are  required 
to  pursue  the  same  programme  of  studies ;  it 
is  for  this  reason  that  both  branches  of  this 
programme,  art  and  science  instruction,  are 
harmoniously  and  judiciously  combined. 
By  the  use  of  the  term  "  art  influence," 
it  must  not  be  understood  that  it  is  thought  desirable  that  students  should 
seek  to  become  artists  in  the  technical  sense  of  the  word.  In  the  course 
of  instniction  of  any  school  of  design  there  will  be  a  tendency  on  the  part 
of  the  pupil  toward  the  artistic  profession,  and  especially  that  of  painting. 


ELEVATING  INFLUENCE  OF  ART  EDUCATION.  153 

Very  often  this  choice  is  made  because  of  an  idle  disposition,  and  be- 
cause the  artist  life  does  not  require  habits  of  persistent  and  daily  labor. 
There  are  persons  who  are  excited  to  take  to  the  palette  and  brushes  by  a 
laudable  ambition  and  aesthetic  tastes,  but  without  any  assured  evidences 
of  talent  or  genius.  At  rare  intervals  the  genuine  artist  appears,  and,  first 
or  last,  he  makes  himself  known,  and  receives  that  full  recognition  which 
is  the  reward,  as  it  is  almost  the  necessity,  of  his  life. 

The  teacher  has  an  important  office  to  fill  in  giving  direction  to  the 
choice  of  occupation  of  those  who  come  under  his  care  and  influence.  He 
may  not  always  be  able  to  detect  the  particular  bent  or  faculty  of  the  stu- 
dent. One  person  may  have  great  powers  of  comparison,  another  a  talent 
for  correct  drawing,  another  a  nice  sense  of  color,  another  skill  in  combi- 
nation of  form  and  color,  another  the  rare  creative  faculty  of  design.  To 
direct  these  into  their  most  fitting  channels,  to  assist  the  student  to  do  that 
which  he  can  do  best,  is  of  greatest  value  to  him.  It  is  an  act  of  serious 
responsibility  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  and  it  will  be  safe  for  him,  in 
most  instances,  to  advise  those  whom  he  has  to  instruct  to  follow  the  se- 
cure and  remunerative  path  of  an  industrial  occupation. 

Under  any  circumstances,  there  will  be  a  large  number  of  young  men 
and  women  who  will  insist  upon  painting  landscapes  and  figures,  and  call 
themselves  "  artists."  They  will  help  to  fill  our  annual  exhibitions  with 
feeble,  meaningless  productions  which  add  nothing  to  the  sum  of  taste 
and  culture.  The  student  in  these  art  schools  can  not  be  too  thoroughly 
impressed  with  the  fact  that  artistic  culture  may  be  exhibited  in  other 
ways  than  in  painting  pictures  and  modeling  statues,  and  that  he  may  be 
more  useful  to  himself  and  to  others  by  bringing  to  some  industrial  occu- 
pation the  benefits  of  the  art  culture  he  has  received  in  the  schools.  To 
become  an  artisan  is  one  of  the  most  excellent  results  to  be  obtained  by 
art  education.  It  helps  to  make  men  more  useful.  For  the  laboring-man 
it  is  in  many  ways  a  blessing.  He  has  that  pleasure  which  comes  from 
refinement  and  culture,  and  he  gets  more  money  for  his  day's  labor.  But, 
perhaps,  the  most  important  of  all  the  good  work  of  art  education  is,  that 
it  helps  to  level  the  class  distinctions  between  men,  and  raises  them  to  a 
higher  and  happier  plane  of  thought  and  action.  Men  are  usually  selfish 
because  they  see  so  little.  Teach  them  to  observe,  to  compare,  and  they 
will  discover  the  good  and  the  beautiful  rather  than  the  bad  and  ugly; 
for  there  is  nothing  evil  in  itself,  but  only  that  which  the  mind  conceives 
in  its  ignorance. 

It  is  not  claimed  that  art  is  necessarily  a  moral  influence,  but  that  those 
who  practice  it  acquire  an  exact  knowledge  which  keeps  their  hands  and 
minds  healthfully  employed.     Whatever  may  be  the  moral  influences  of 


154r  ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 

art  culture  to  the  individual,  to  society,  and  to  commerce,  its  benefits  are 
incalculable.  When  nations  are  peaceful  and  most  prosperous  the  arts 
flourish,  and  the  violence  of  war  even  is  tempered  by  their  gentle  sway. 

In  his  "  History  of  Ancient  Art,"  Winckelmann  relates  a  fact  eloquent 
of  the  power  of  art.  He  says :  "  During  the  obstinate  war  which  pre- 
ceded the  Peloponnesian  war,  which  had  its  beginning  in  the  eighty-sev- 
enth Olympiad,  even  during  the  fiercest  of  these  internecine  conflicts  the 
artists  looked  forward  to  the  great  day  when  their  works  should  be  ex- 
hibited before  the  eyes  of  every  Greek.  For  all  hostilities  ceased  when, 
at  the  expiration  of  four  and  three  years  respectively,  the  time  of  the 


Masks. 


Olympian  and  Isthmian  games  drew  near,  and  the  Greeks,  exasperated 
against  each  other,  met  together  to  share  in  the  genei'al  joy  at  Elis  or 
Corinth.  Even  they  who  were  banished  from  their  native  land  were  per- 
mitted to  appear  at  these  games,  and  who,  gazing  upon  the  flower  of  the 
nation,  which  was  seeking  to  distinguish  itself,  forgot  the  past  and  looked 
not  to  the  future." 

Such  was  the  power  of  art  in  ancient  Greece,  even  when  its  study  was 
confined  to  the  privileged  few.  What  may  not  be  its  peaceful  offices  when 
it  becomes  the  possession  of  the  multitude?    During  all  those  years  of 


A  GOOD  WORK  FOR  THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY.  155 

highest  culture  among  the  Greeks,  the  study  and  practice  of  art  were  re- 
served for  a  cliosen  class.  Pamphilus,  the  master  of  Apelles,  Zeuxis,  and 
Nicias,  admitted  as  students  to  his  ateliers  only  those  of  noble  birth  or 
of  distinguished  names.  In  general,  the  bondmen  were  not  permitted  to 
study  drawing. 

The  Greek  civilization  carried  the  plastic  arts  to  the  finest  perfection 
of  form,  expression,  and  beauty.  This  grace  of  form  extended  to  objects 
of  use,  but  they  were  few  in  number.  The  countless  articles  of  use  and 
ornament,  the  manufacture  of  which  to-day  gives  employment  to  millions 
of  men,  and  contributes  to  their  comfort  and  wealth,  did  not  exist  in 
Greece  or  Rome,  or  during  the  Renaissance ;  and  while  we  go  to  the  art 
productions  of  the  past  for  knowledge  and  inspiration,  yet  it  is  the  nobler 
purpose  of  the  present  day  that  we  seek  this  culture  in  behalf  of  the  wants 
and  tastes  of  the  many  as  well  as  the  few. 

If  we  do  not  use  art  and  science  for  the  building  of  splendid  temples, 
cathedrals,  and  palaces,  as  grandly  as  has  been  done  in  the  past,  they  assist 
to  give  all  classes  homes  more  or  less  tasteful,  filled  with  arrangements 
for  health,  comfort,  and  convenience  such  as  the  classic  past,  with  all  its 
l)eautiful  statues,  grand  architecture,  and  luxury  of  wealth,  never  knew. 
And  this  is  one  of  the  good  works  reserved  for  the  latter  part  of  the 
nineteenth  century  —  to  popularize  art,  to  unite  the  useful,  which  is  the 
end  of  industry,  with  the  beautiful,  which  is  the  end  of  art. 


ART  INDUSTRIES  AT  THE  CENTENNIAL  EXPOSITION. 

The  Centennial  International  Exposition  at  Philadelphia  will  have 
incalculable  influence  for  good  upon  the  art  education  and  art  industry  of 
the  United  States.  What  the  Exposition  at  Paris  in  1851,  and  that  at 
London  in  1863,  did  for  England  and  France,  our  Philadelphia  Exposition 
will  do  for  the  United  States.  We  were  already  familiar  with  the  paint- 
ings and  sculpture  of  Europe.  The  taste  and  wealth  of  collectors  had 
brought  together  the  finest  works  of  celebrated  modern  artists.  These 
had  often  been  exhibited  in  public,  but  the  best  products  of  industrial  art 
had  been  seen  here  only  to  a  limited  extent.  The  costly  works  of  the 
Barbedieune,  Elkington,  or  the  Sevres  manufactories,  and  the  riches  of 
Asiatic  art  were  found  sometimes  in  our  private  collections,  but  seldom 
in  the  shops. 

This  exposition  gathered  together,  within  a  comparatively  small  space, 
the  most  wonderful  results  of  the  taste  and  skill  of  all  nations.     It  sur- 


156 


AET  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 


prised  even  our  merchants,  who  for  years  had  examined  the  markets  of 
Europe,  and  supposed  that  they  had  seen  every  thing. 

To  the  capitalist  who  had  just  begun  to  manufacture,  and  sought  for 
new  sources  of  inspiration,  these  curious  and  sometimes  beautiful  out- 
growths of  the  character  and  habits  of  many  nations  were  full  of  sugges- 
tion. The  thousands  of  visitors  took  ceaseless  pleasure  and  interest  in 
studying  these  products,  which  displayed  the  ingenuity  and  patient  indus- 
try of  so  many  human  beings.  The  works  of  art  were  not  confined  to 
modern  days,  but  there  came  from  foreign  governments  antique  objects 
of  rare  historical  interest,  so  that  our  exposition  became  also  a  grand 
museum,  in  which  one  could  review  the  progress  or  decadence  of  various 
arts  and  industries. 

This  exposition  is  of  greater  advantage  to  the  United  States  than  to 
any  other  nation,  because  it  has  been  held  within  our  borders,  and  thou- 
sands of  our  people  have  given  to  it  intelligent  study.  On  the  other  hand, 
those  who  helped  us  from  abroad  in  this  rich  display  will  have  some  rec- 
ompense from  us.  They  have  seen — many  of  them  for  the  first  time — 
that  the  skill  and  ingenuity  of  the  American  mechanic  have  added  to  the 
sum  of  human  knowledge ;  that  he  has  produced  great  improvements  in 
machinery ;  and  that  he  has  invented  a  good  many  useful  things  that  they 

need  and  will  purchase.  It  is  proposed  in  this 
chapter  to  review,  rapidly,  some  of  the  art 
industries  exhibited  at  this  exposition,  bear- 
ing in  mind  the  influence  which  they  exerted 
upon  the  United  States  and  other  countries. 

It  was  the  good  fortune  of  the  writer  to 
be  one  of  the  judges  selected  to  make  recom- 
mendations for  awards,  and  in  that  oftice  to 
become  associated  with  a  number  of  highly 
intelligent  gentlemen  who  were  commissioned 
by  foreign  countries  to  fulfill  the  same  duties. 
It  is  interesting  to  know  the  opinions  of  those 
who  are  competent  to  criticise ;  and  these  ex- 
perienced judges  were  of  the  opinion  that  this 
exposition  was  in  many  respects  the  most  re- 
markable ever  held.  They  were  eager  to  ex- 
Persian  coflfee-pot.  press  their  admiration  for  the  great  capacity 

and  boundless  energy  of  the  American  people  and  the  infinite  resources 
of  the  land.  They  admired  the  ingenuity  and  excellent  workmanship  dis- 
played in  the  construction  of  machinery,  and  the  instruments  used  in  sci- 
ence and  trade.     They  wondered  at  the  thousands  of  inventions  which 


Caudelabium,  iu  the  Collection  of  James  Gordon  Beuuett.    Made  by  Tiffany  &  Co. 


SUPERIORITY  OF  FOREIGN  ART  INDUSTRIES.  159 

liave  made  the  Patent -office  a  most  curious  and  interesting  museum. 
This  recognition  of  the  value  of  the  industries  of  the  United  States  was 
constantly  and  cheerfully  accorded. 

The  exhibition  made  by  the  people  of  the  United  States  offered  an  ex- 
cellent opportunity  to  study  the  questions  of  political  economy  and  sociolo- 
gy as  they  have  been  developed  in  this  country.  We  necessarily  occupied 
a  large  space  upon  the  grounds  and  in  the  buildings  of  the  ex^josition, 
and  all  of  this  display  showed  that  during  the  brief  period  of  our  national 
existence  we  have  been  devoted  to  the  sterner  occupations  which  develop 
the  vigor  and  strength  of  a  people ;  we  have  been  gathering  the  fruits  of 
the  earth,  establishing  manufactures  and  commerce,  and  have  begun  the 
accumulation  of  wealth,  through  which  come  the  opportunities  for  leisure, 
culture,  and  refinement.  The  exposition  showed  our  physical  resources  in 
all  their  power;  but  it  also  exhibited  our  inferiority  in  the  fine  arts  and 
the  art  industries.  ^Nevertheless,  taking  into  consideration  the  facts  of 
our  history,  there  was  reason  for  gratification  at  the  representation  of  the 
art  of  painting. 

Many  of  the  pictures  gave  evidence  of  original  power  and  a  national 
style,  while  others  showed  that  study  in  the  art  schools  and  in  the  ateliers 
of  the  best  masters  of  Paris  and  Munich  had  given  direction  to  the  talent 
or  genius  of  the  artists  who  painted  them.  Our  sculptors,  with  a  few 
praiseworthy  exceptions,  did  not  seem  to  think  it  worth  while  to  send  any 
of  their  works  to  the  exposition.  The  collection  of  designs  from  the  In- 
stitute of  Architects  was  altogether  the  best  public  exhibition  we  have 
ever  had  of  the  progress  of  this  important  branch  of  art.  It  was,  per- 
haps, all  the  more  conspicuous  from  the  fact  that  foreign  architects  sent 
comparatively  few  designs ;  but  our  architects  might  have  held  their  own 
against  even  the  best  representation  from  abroad,  for  they  seem  to  make 
their  own  adaptations  from  classic  orders  and  styles  rather  than  to  copy 
from  those  of  modern  Europe.  The  United  States  suffers  most,  by  com- 
parison with  foreign  countries,  in  those  industries  of  which  art  forms  a 
part.  It  is  said  that  the  production  of  articles  of  taste  follows  the  de- 
mand ;  but  for  many  years  millions  of  dollars'  worth  of  art  objects  have 
been  imported.  They  might  have  been  made  at  home,  had  we  encour- 
aged or  facilitated  the  art  education  of  workmen.  There  were,  however, 
at  the  exposition  many  evidences  of  artistic  faculty,  and,  in  some  depart- 
ments, of  great  excellence  in  design  and  workmanship. 

Tiffany  &  Co.'s  exhibit  of  work  in  gold,  silver,  bronze,  and  other  metals 
was  especially  remarkable.  It  was  a  great  pleasure  to  see  their  tastefully 
arranged  cases  containing  articles  for  use  or  ornament,  offering  fine  con- 
trast and  harmony  of  color,  with  novelty  and  charm  of  design.     Among 


160  ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 

these  articles  were  drinking-cups,  tea-sets,  and  pitchers,  with  bold  conven- 
tional ornamentation,  suggested  by  Japanese  designs. 

Tiffany  &  Co.'s  repousse  work  was  also  well  conceived  and  skillfully  ex- 
ecuted. The  Bryant  vase,  a  gift  to  the  great  poet,  expressing  the  respect, 
admiration,  and  love  of  his  countrymen,  was  symmetrical  and  beautiful  in 
shape.  It  was  covered  with  suggestive  designs,  and  was  graceful  and  ar- 
tistic in  its  execution.  Another  admirable  example  of  repousse  work  was 
a  pair  of  candelabra,  which  were  executed  for  Mr.  James  Gordon  Bennett, 
to  commemorate  the  victory  of  his  yacht  Dauntless  over  the  yacht  Mo- 
hawJc  in  1875.  The  name  of  the  latter  suggested  the  composition  of  the 
work,  which  is  taken  from  the  life  and  customs  of  the  North  American  In- 
dians. In  this  respect  it  is  original,  vigorous,  and  picturesque,  and  one 
wonders  that  material  so  abundant,  striking,  and  characteristic  had  not  be- 
fore been  made  use  of  in  ornamentation.  The  buffalo's  head,  the  arms  and 
costumes  which  decorate  the  candelabra  are  accurately  studied  from  nat- 
ure, while  the  figures  of  the  Indians  are  fine  examples  of  the  plastic  art. 
In  the  hands  of  a  genuine  artist,  the  methods  of  working  peculiar  to  re- 
pousse  make  it  possible  to  obtain  the  distinctive  texture  of  objects,  and 
in  this  regard  the  memorial  candelabra  are  remarkable.  Tlie  flesh  of  the 
Indians,  their  costumes,  the  bark  of  the  canoe,  are  all  truthfully  rendered. 
One  is  also  impressed  by  the  classic  character  of  this  decoration.  Those 
who  have  ever  seen  the  North  American  Indian  in  his  savage  state  in  the 
Far  West  will  have  been  startled  by  the  extraordinary  resemblance  E.is- 
tori  has  to  him  when  she  strides  upon  the  stage  in  the  character  of  Me- 
dea ;  and  so  this  decoration  recalls  with  singular  force  that  of  the  archaic 
Greek. 

The  fine  art  of  repousse  is  to-day  having  its  "  renaissance  "  from  the 
decadence  since  the  Middle  Ages,  and  in  its  production  it  is  highly  credit- 
able to  Tiffany  &  Co.  that  they  have  helped  to  place  the  United  States 
on  a  level  with  European  countries. 

The  exhibition  of  the  Gorham  Company  was  highly  praiseworthy.  To 
be  sure,  it  flashed  and  glittered  with  burnished  silver  until  the  eye,  dazzled 
and  tired,  turned  away,  seeking  relief  in  surfaces  which  were  not  polished, 
or  in  sober  tones  of  color ;  yet  the  productions  were  meritorious,  because 
the  shapes  and  designs  are  almost  always  in  good  taste.  Water -pitch- 
ers, jugs,  and  other  articles  of  use,  stand  firmly  upon  substantial  bases ; 
the  handles  are  just  where  they  ought  to  be ;  the  mouths  of  vessels  for 
liquids  are  made  to  pour  out,  and  not  spill  over;  the  excellent  shapes 
of  these  useful  articles  have  met  tlie  approval  of  every  good  housekeeper. 
While  this  company  showed  much  that  was  practical,  their  judgment  and 
artistic  taste  were  evident  in  objects  for  ornament.     Their  vases,  flower- 


EXHIBITION  OF  FURNITURE  AND  WOOD -CARVING. 


161 


Romano-British  Caster  Ware. 


stands,  and  salvers  were  symmetrical  and  full  of  grace,  while  a  piece  of 
repousse  work  was  executed  with  skill  and  delicacy. 

Of  the  art  of  the  potter  in  the  United  States  there  is  not  much  to  be 
said.  At  the  present  time  his  work  is  confined  to  the  making  of  iron- 
ware, stone -ware,  and  tiles.  They  are 
excellent  of  their  kind,  and  have  driv- 
en from  the  market  foreign  wares  of 
a  similar  character.  Concerning  the 
decoration  of  pottery,  which  the  com- 
monest Chinese  or  Japanese  artisan  has 
at  his  fingers'  ends,  our  manufacturers 
at  Trenton,  Cincinnati,  Sciotoville,  and 
elsewhere,  know  but  little.  It  is  to  be 
hoped  that  the  magnificent  display  of 
ceramics  which  came  from  foreign  coun- 
tries will  teach  them,  and  inspire  them 
with  emulation. 

The  exhibition  of  furniture  was  very 
large.  Stacks  of  it,  acres  of  it,  came  from  all  parts  of  the  country  where 
a  numerous  variety  of  handsome  woods  is  to  be  found.  To  be  sure,  much 
of  this  furniture  was  unattractive,  awkward  in  shape,  and  imperfect  in 
workmanship,  and  there  were  scores  of  extraordinary  inventions,  such  as 
"  hygienic  chairs,"  "  adjustable  tables,"  and  "  patent  desks."  Besides 
these,  however,  there  was  a  great  deal  of  excellent  wood-work,  simple  and 
artistic.  This  was  the  outcome  of  recent  discussion  about  household  fur- 
niture. The  influence  of  Eastlake  could  be  seen  in  many  directions,  and 
the  picturesque  ideas  in  the  published  designs  of  Talbert,  the  English  ar- 
chitect, could  be  traced  here  and  there.  The  Boston  manufacturers  and 
dealers  have  taken  the  advance  in  the  encouragement  of  these  simpler 
sliapes,  and  we  are  now  in  the  midst  of  a  furniture  reform. 

Marcotte,  of  Kew  York,  exhibited  a  superb  cabinet,  which  was  artistic 
in  every  respect.  It  was  inlaid  with  different  woods,  decorated  with  hand- 
some carvings,  and  had  fine  architectural  proportions.  The  Cincinnati 
School  of  Design,  as  well  as  that  of  William  H.  Fry,  also  of  Cincinnati, 
exhibited  a  number  of  excellent  examples  of  wood-carving. 

Printing  in  ite  different  forms — such  as  book-making,  periodicals,  dis- 
play circulars,  posters,  and  the  rest — showed  some  originality,  and  a  fair 
amount  of  ingenuity  and  taste  in  the  way  of  adaptation. 

The  industries  which  have  been  mentioned,  and  others  of  not  so  much 
importance,  showed  evidences  of  natural  taste  and  some  culture ;  but  they 
served,  by  contrast  with  those  representing  foreign  countries,  to  heighten 

11 


162 


ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED   TO  INDUSTRY. 


the  impression  that,  as  an  art,  industrial  design  has  been  but  little  culti- 
vated in  this  country.    Except  in  the  drawings  of  a  few  schools  of  design, 


Staffordshire  Saucer. 

and  the  public  schools  of  several  cities,  whose  admirable  exhibitions  re- 
ceived little  or  no  oiRcial  recognition,  were  hidden  from  siglit,  and  almost 
passed  unnoticed,  there  was  limited  evidence  to  show  that  our  people  pos- 
sessed a  knowledge  of  the  art  of  design. 

The  attitude  of  Great  Britain  at  tlie  exposition  can  excite  only  feel- 
ings of  friendly  recognition.  The  expression  "  the  mother  country  "  has 
a  new  and  better  meaning.  We  were  celebrating  the  centennial  year  of 
our  independence  from  that  nation,  and  yet  Her  Majesty's  Government, 
art  academies,  museums,  art  collectors,  manufacturers,  and  merchants, 
came  to  do  honor  to  the  occasion.     Great  Britain  stretched  forth  both 

hands,  and  they  were  full ;  while  her  mighty 
colonies,  from  every  part  of  the  world,  join- 
ed in  the  demonstration. 

It  has  been  said  by  those  who  know, 
that  upon  no  occasion  had  the  British  na- 
tion ever  gathered  together  so  large  a  col- 
lection of  the  works  of  her  painters  as 
was  seen  in  Memorial  Hall.  The  most 
celebrated  of  her  living  artists  were  there,  and  the  masterpieces  of  those 
famous  in  the  past  lent  historical  value,  and  yet  deeper  interest,  to  the 


Compotier.    Wedgwood  Ware. 


WHAT  THE   NINETEENTH   CENTURY  HAS   DONE. 


163 


exhibition.     The  art  industries  of  Great  Britain  gave  signal  evidence  of 
unlimited  material  resources  of  knowledge  and  experience. 

Elkington  &  Co.,  silversmiths  and  workers  in  otlier  metals,  stand 
among  the  lirst  of  manufacturers  of  articles  of  art,  not  only  in  Great  Brit- 
ain, but  in  other  parts  of  Europe.  Some  of  their  superb  productions  fair- 
ly enter  the  field  of  fine  art.  The  repousse  work  which  they  have  made, 
in  exquisite  delicacy  of  execution  may  be  compared  with  the  best  efforts 
of  the  Italian  masters  of  the  sixteenth  century.  The  Milton  shield,  in  sil- 
ver, and  the  Helicon  vase,  in  silver  and  steel,  with  gold  damaskeen,  are 
works  of  art  executed  by  the  celebrated  artist  Ladeul.  The  Elkington 
Company,  in  the  production  of  these  and  many  rare  vases,  cups,  and 
plaques,  which  are  full  of  the  genius  of  design,  maintain  their  artistic  po- 
sition. One  can  not  but  remember,  however,  that,  with  all  the  beauty  and 
merit  of  these  objects  of  art,  they  are  made  as  articles  of  commerce. 

The  artists  of  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  were  often  in  the 
service  or  under  tlie  patronage  of  wealthy  nobles.  Not  seldom  they  sup- 
ported an  independent  existence,  and  a  great  deal  of  the  rarest  repousse 
and  damaskeen  work  of  medieval  days  was  the  creation  of  some  poor 
armorer  of  Florence  or  Venice 
unknown  to  fame.  The  civili- 
zation of  the  nineteenth  century 
lias  changed  all  of  that,  so  far 
as  Europe  is  concerned.  The 
great  capitalist,  the  large  man- 
ufacturer, have,  in  some  sense, 
supplanted  king  and  baron. 
This  is  not  the  place  to  discuss 
questions  of  political  econom}^ 
such  as  the  advantages  of  capital  in  the  employment  of  labor,  or  the  bene- 
fits derived  from  the  division  of  labor.  Capital,  in  our  day,  employs  the 
artistic  faculty,  but  it  does  not  produce  the  best  art.  During  the  Mid- 
dle Ages  the  artist  was  unrestrained ;  he  worked  out,  in  his  own  way,  his 
quaint  conceits,  his  poetic  fancies.  The  master  of  his  own  time  and  ac- 
tions, he  gave  full  play  to  the  bent  of  his  genius,  while,  under  the  employ- 
er of  modern  days,  he  fashions  to  order,  and  is  more  or  less  harnessed  to 
his  labor.  These  reflections  are  inspired,  not  so  much  from  the  study  of 
the  art  work  of  the  Elkingtons — because  they  seem  to  give  the  largest  lib- 
erty to  their  artists — but  from  a  general  observation  of  the  higher  works 
of  industrial  art,  always  excepting  that  of  the  Japanese,  of  our  own  period 
compared  with  the  past. 

The  Milton  shield  and  Helicon  vase  were  not  the  only  examples  of  re- 


Cameos  by  Wedgwood— White  on  Blue  and  Olive-gray 
Grounds. 


164  AKT  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 

pousse  exhibited  by  Elkiiigton  &  Co.  There  was  also  a  handsome  shield 
of  repousse  in  iron,  which  was  bought  by  Professor  Archer,  of  the  British 
Commission,  for  the  Glasgow  Museum.  The  centre  ornament  of  this 
shield  was  a  finely  modeled  head  of  Medusa.  Surrounding  the  head  was 
a  broad  band,  artistically  decorated  with  figures  of  War,  Famine,  Slaugh- 
ter, and  Fire. 

The  collection  of  the  Elkingtons  was  a  brilliant  display  of  work  in 
metal,  a  long  and  interesting  list  of  which  might  be  enumerated.  It  gave 
dignity  to  the  British  section,  and  it  can  not  fail  to  produce  the  most 
marked  results  for  good  upon  the  public  taste  and  the  art  industries  of 
the  United  States. 

English  pottery  is  decidedly  superior  to  that  of  other  European  na- 
tions.    This  excellence  is  of  comparatively  recent  date.     A.  R.  Daniell  & 

Son,  merchants,  of  London,  ex- 
hibited choice  examples  of  ar- 
tistic pottery  from  the  manu- 
factories of  Minton,  Worcester, 
and  Colebrookdale.  Their  col- 
lection was  very  complete,  em- 
bracing a  large  variety  of  styles 
and  subjects.  There  were  vases 
which  have  the  title  of  pate  sur 
pdte,.&o  called  by  the  French, 
because  of  the  application  of  a  paste,  transparent  or  opaque,  upon  the  body 
of  the  vase  after  it  has  had  one  baking.  This  decoration  of  applied  paste, 
in  the  vases  just  referred  to,  was  generally  that  of  human  figures,  well 
modeled  after  classic  compositions.  Chinese  and  Japanese  pottery  em- 
ploy this  kind  of  decoration  in  the  most  liberal  manner,  and  with  results 
of  startling  brilliancy. 

The  reproductions  of  Henri  Deux  or  Oiron  ware  by  Minton,  Ilollins, 
&  Co.  are  a  welcome  addition  to  ceramic  art.  There  are  several  pieces 
the  originals  of  which  are  in  the  South  Kensington  Museum.  It  is  one 
of  the  wise  and  generous  provisions  for  art  education  of  the  Government 
of  Great  Britain  that  it  permits  the  art  treasures  in  its  collections  to  be 
reproduced  for  public  sale ;  and  certainly  none  are  more  pleasing  or  more 
admirably  executed  than  this  Oiron  ware. 

The  collectors  of  artistic  pottery  who  have  fancied  the  Doulton  ware 
had  an  opportunity  of  seeing  here  a  complete  variety.  It  had  the  addi- 
tional advantage  of  being  displayed  upon  very  pretty  hanging  shelves  and 
attractive  sideboards.  One  admired  the  vases  and  jugs,  and  were  offered 
a  suggestion  of  the  places  they  were  intended  to  ornament.     This  kind  of 


Ice  Pails.    Wedgwood  Ware. 


ART  INEUSTEIES  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN. 


165 


Saxou  Pitcher. 


ware,  as  well  as  the  handsome  tiles  of  Minton,  Hollins,  &  Co.,  are  more 
likely  to  be  imitated  in  the  United  States  at  the  present  time  than  the 
finer  kinds  of  porcelain,  even  of  that  which  is  printed,  and  which  we  do 
not  consider  artistic. 

The  evidences  of  cnlture  in  the  art  of  design  were  visible  in  many  of 
the  English  industries.  There  was  a  snbdued  and 
harmonious  tone  in  tapestries,  wall-paper,  carpets, 
and  other  articles  for  house  decoration,  and  their 
exhibition  here  can  not  fail  to  produce  a  beneficial 
influence  upon  similar  industries  in  this  country. 
The  groups  of  subjects  from  the  South  Kensington 
School  were  of  great  value  in  the  illustration  of 
its  method  of  art  and  science  instruction.  Among 
these  were  reproductions  in  plaster  of  works  of  art, 
and  diagrams  prepared  for  the  use  of  students.  The 
method  of  the  South  Kensington  School  is  present- 
ed at  length  in  another  part  of  this  book.  Yery  re- 
cently a  discussion  has  arisen  in  England  with  regard  to  the  efficiency  of 
this  system,  and  its  success  is  denied.  There  are  errors  in  tlie  plan  ;  one 
of  which  is  the  payment  of  money  rewards  to  pupils.  It  is  possible  that 
this  school  appears  to  fail  because  it  has  not  annually  produced  a  corps  of 
designers  of  genius.  As  if  any  method  of  instruction  could  invest  its  stu- 
dents with  genius. 

But  those  who  compared  the  art  industries  of  Great  Britain  with  those 
of  other  European  nations  at  Paris  in  1851,  and  saw  their  inferiority,  and 
made  the  same  comparison  at  Philadelphia  in  1876,  can  not  fail  to  recog- 
nize their  present  great  su- 
periority, and  admire  the 
system  which  achieved  the 
result. 

It  has  been  previously 
shown  in  this  book  that 
France,  Belgium,  and  oth- 
er nations  admit  the  supe- 
riority of  English  art  in- 
dustries, which  is  attribu- 
ted by  them,  for  the  most 
part,  to  the  right  cause, 
and  they  are  trying  to 
overcome  their  defects  by 


schemes  of  education  similar  to  those  of  South  Kensinjrton 


White-ware  Perforated  Dish.    Wedgwood. 

Such  schools 


166  ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTEY. 

teach  tlie  student  how  to  draw,  and  the  art  of  design ;  but  they  accomplish 
yet  greater  results  in  the  influence  they  exercise  upon  the  community  at 
large.  It  is  through  the  multiplication  of  good  models,  it  is  by  discussion 
and  instruction,  and  the  elevation  of  a  high  standard  of  artistic  taste,  that 
the  English  manufacturers  and  merchants  are  taking  the  lead  in  the  com- 
merce in  objects  of  art. 


France  seems  to  have  regarded  this  exposition  with  an  indifference 
amounting  almost  to  contempt.  She  was  not  justly  represented  either  in 
the  fine  arts  or  in  her  industries,  although  in  both  of  these  her  relations 
with  the  United  States  are  of  great  magnitude.  But  where  the  French 
Government  was  indifferent,  what  could  be  expected  of  the  people  ?  Of 
the  vast  number  of  paintings,  sculpture,  and  objects  of  art  which  fill  the 


Oruiiiueut. 


galleries  of  the  Louvre,  Luxembourg,  Versailles,  the  museums,  and  the 
churches,  nothing  was  sent  but  a  few  Sevres  vases  and  several  pieces  of 
Gobelin  tapestry.  Of  the  masterpieces  of  her  most  celebrated  painters, 
not  one  graced  the  walls  of  Memorial  Hall. 

The  art  industries  were  made  equally  conspicuous  by  their  absence. 
When  one  thinks  of  the  magnificent  display  of  French  manufactures  at 
tlie  expositions  of  Paris,  London,  and  Vienna,  their  absence  at  Philadel- 
phia excites  feelings  of  vexation  and  regret. 

Among  all  the  manufacturers  of  bronzes  in  France,  Susse  freres  made 
the  only  noteworthy  appearance ;  this  collection  excited  general  admira- 
tion. The  works  in  gold  and  silver  of  the  French  artisan  have  their  own 
characteristics.  They  are  noted  for  their  delicate  finish  and  graceful  shapes. 
Froment  Meurice  in  those  pretty  things  did  full  justice  to  the  national 
reputation.     Deck  has  identified  his  name  with  the  ceramic  art  in  France; 


FRENCH  ART   INDUSTRIES. 


1G7 


and  especially  by  the  employment  of  the  most  celebrated  decorators  of 
porcelain.  He  stands  at  the  head  of  his  business  in  France :  but  he,  with 
others,  did  not  aspire  to  the  honors  of  the  Centennial  Exposition.  To  till 
the  vacant  places  of  these  dealers  in  pottery,  there  came  the  printed  ware 
of  Gien,  entitled  "faience  artistique,"  and  manufactures  from  the  ancient 
city  of  Limoges  (Haviland  et  C'^).  It  was  a  bulky  display;  there  was  a 
great  deal  of  table  and  household  ware,  and  a  variety  of  artistic  pottery, 
such  as  plaques,  vases,  and  pitchers.  Some  of  these  objects  were  made 
of  a  strong  earthen  material,  of  a  rich  unctuous  texture,  and  negative  in 
color,  with  a  bold  and  not  ungraceful  decoration  worked  into  the  body  of 
the  vase.  This  collection  was  striking  in  its  general  appearance  ;  it  con- 
tained but  little,  however,  to  recall  memories  of  Limoges  of  the  fifteenth 
and  sixteenth  centuries. 

A  compartment  near  that  of  Limoges  was  devoted  to  what  was  called 


Palisey  Dish,  of  his  Earliest  Ware. 


Palissy  ware,  manufactured  by  Barbizet  fils.  This  collection  comprised 
reproductions  of  the  faience  made  by  tlie  celebrated  Palissy.  Without 
doubt,  Palissy  was  a  man  of  original  genius,  and  there  are  works  by  him 
of  classic  grace ;  but  the  manufacturers  of  these  reproductions  have,  for 
the  most  part,  chosen  hideous  subjects.  There  were  many  objects,  such 
as  ewers,  urns,  basins,  dinner-plates,  and  articles  for  table-service.  These 
were  covered  with  repulsive  toads,  lizards,  snakes,  salamanders,  fishes,  and 
foliage ;  all  of  it  in  sharply  crude  and  inharmonious  colors.  An  urn  cov- 
ered with  these  reptiles  might  possibly  be  seen  to  advantage  in  a  pond  of 
water,  or  under  a  cascade ;  but  to  place  them  upon  dishes  to  be  used  for 


168 


ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 


food,  or  upon  objects  to  serve  for  the  ornamentation  of  the  dwelling,  is 
contrary  to  the  rules  of  art,  and  altogether  offensive. 

There  is,  perhaps,  no  manufacture  of  metal  work  on  the  Continent 
worthy  to  be  compared  with  Elkington  &  Co.  except  Barbedienne ;  but  he 
did  not  think  it  worth  the  labor  and  expense  to  come  to  Philadelpliia. 
Le  Cointe,  however,  proved  that  France  held  her  place  in  the  art  of  re- 
pousse and  metal  work.  In  many  other  ways  this  great  nation  exhibited 
her  skill  and  artistic  feeling;  but  she  was  not  the  France  of  the  exposi- 
tion at  Yienna,  nor  did  she  bring  to  Philadelphia  a  suggestion  even  of  the 
exposition  of  the  Union  Centrale  of  1874.  This  failure  was  a  loss  to  us, 
and  will  prove  an  injury  to  France. 


Germany,  also,  seems  to  have  had  her  thoughts  far  removed  from  the 
Centennial  Exposition.  From  the  poverty  of  her  contributions  and  her 
lack  of  sympathy,  one  would  hardly  believe  that 
so  many  thousands  of  her  children  were  citizens 
here.  One  of  the  angles  formed  by  the  great  nave 
and  transept  of  the  main  building  of  the  exposi-, 
tion  was  occupied  by  Germany  with  a  collection 
of  ceramic  art.  It  contained  but  little  that  was 
attractive,  and  not  a  sign  that  the  once  famous 
Dresden  ware  had  made  artistic  advancement. 
From  Idar  and  Oberstein  there  came  a  superb  col- 
lection of  cameos,  and  the  reproductions  of  the 
Bavarian  Gewerbe  Museum  were  most  admirable. 
They  were  subjects  chosen  from  shields  and  other 
objects  in  repousse,  and  from  classic  designs,  an- 
swering well  the  purposes  of  artistic  education. 
Similar  subjects,  exquisitely  reproduced  by  the 
electro-galvanic  process,  came  from  Krupp,  known  as  the  manufacturer  of 
cannon,  with  a  numerous  variety  of  objects  in  metal,  not  always  of  a  supe- 
rior or  artistic  class,  yet  having  the  merit  of  cheapness  as  to  price. 


Mediaeval  Watering-pot. 


If  Austria  did  not  contribute  largely  in  the  way  of  art  industries,  she 
at  least  sent  some  of  the  works  of  the  greatest  of  her  modern  painters. 
Hans  Makart  revealed  a  power  which  had  never  before  been  seen  in  this 
Western  World.  In  his  hands  the  painter's  palette  has  a  scope  and  capaci- 
ty never  before  known  in  the  painter's  art. 

The  industries  into  which  art  enters  were  not  largely  present  in  the 


BELGIUM.— SWITZERLAND.  169 

Austrian  section.  The  eye  of  every  visitor  was  attracted  with  curious  in- 
terest to  the  collection  of  Bohemian  glass  which  shone  with  reflected  brill- 
iancy. The  Nuremberg  toys  were  the  toys  of  ever  so  long  ago.  They 
seem  never  to  have  changed.  They  appeal  to  the  child  sense,  and  aim  no 
higher.  But  it  is  the  German  child  sense,  at  least  so  the  toy-makers  of 
to-day  in  the  United  States  say,  and  seem  to  think.  The  American  baby 
is  supposed  to  have  a  keener  and  more  active  disposition,  and  requires 
toys  suitable  to  its  more  excitable  temperament. 


A  series  of  models  for  the  study  of  descriptive  geometry  was  one  of 
the  evidences  which  Belgium  gave  of  the  importance  attached  to  that  sci- 
ence in  her  method  of  art  education.  These  models  were  solids,  represent- 
ed by  their  skeletons,  which  were  made  of  wire.  An  excellence  in  these 
models,  especially  for  the  earlier  studies,  is  that  not  only  the  exterior  form 
of  the  figure  is  seen,  but  the  interior,  with  all  its 
auxiliaries.  The  industries  of  Belgium  displayed 
uniform  good  taste.  The  manufacture  of  laces  is 
one  of  the  most  distinguished,  and  in  the  profusion 
and  variety  of  this  graceful  and  proHtable  production 
the  eye  and  the  imagination  of  men  and  women 
were  bewildered. 


One  of  the  most  lucrative  employments  of  the 
artisans  of  Switzerland  has  been  that  of  wood-carv- 
ing, and  it  is  rather  surprising  that,  during  all  the 
years  devoted  to  this  manufacture,  it  has  not  risen 

,  1       ^         t      p    ^  1         •  p  •!!  Wedgwood  Cameos. 

above  the  level  ot  the  production  or  commercial  ob- 
jects. It  is  singular  that  the  Swiss  have  failed  to  produce  artistic  designs, 
not  to  speak  of  higher  efforts  in  the  plastic  arts.  This  is  probably  due 
to  the  absence  of  good  models,  and  to  the  fact  that  there  are  few,  if  any, 
schools  of  design  in  Switzerland.  The  special  schools  for  wood  -  carving, 
in  Brienz  and  other  districts,  do  not  seem  to  have  fostered  invention  or 
developed  artistic  genius.  The  same  impossible  cuckoos  wheel  out  of 
their  little  closets,  scream  a  few  conventional  sounds,  and  then  wheel  back 
again  with  methodical  exactness.  We  saw  the  tame  and  feeble  repetitions 
of  bread -plates  and  paper-cutters;  on  all  sides  were  imitations  of  fruit, 
game,  and  other  still-life ;  and  we  lost  hope  for  art  progress  in  that  direc- 
tion. The  policy  of  the  educational  system  of  Switzerland  is  not  to  intro- 
duce art  instruction,  like  that  of  drawing,  into  her  public  schools ;  and  it 


170  ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 

may  be  attributable  to  this  fact  that  her  art  and  industrial  exhibits  show- 
ed a  lack  of  grace,  symmetry,  and  invention. 

Wood-carving  is  destined  to  become  an  art  industry  of  great  impor- 
tance in  the  United  States,  and  already  an  appearance  of  freshness  and 
spirit  indicates  that  it  is  not  likely  to  follow  Swiss  models. 


Sweden — that  other  country  of  mountains  and  lakes — at  once  gave  to 
the  visitor  an  impression  that  she  is  distinctly  original,  if  not  artistic.  Her 
pottery,  glass-ware,  furniture,  and  household  objects  were  always  in  good 
taste  and  well  made.  Attached  to  the  important  manufactories  of  Swe- 
den are  the  societies  formed  by  the  employers  and  workmen,  by  which  are 
sustained  schools,  libraries,  reading-rooms,  sick  and  burial  funds ;  and  with 
such  institutions  it  may  be  imagined  that  strikes  and  trades-unions  and 
starving  people  are  not  often  seen  in  Sweden. 

One  of  the  many  picturesque  objects  in  the  beautiful  grounds  of  the 
exposition,  and  standing  near  the  very  different  but  equally  charming  Jap- 
anese Bazaar,  was  the  Swedish  school-house.  Its  frame-work  was  trans- 
ported from  the  workshop  in  Stockholm  and  erected  here.  It  was  as  thor- 
oughly constructed  as  it  was  pretty. 


There  was  a  great  deal  that  was  crude,  yet  vigorous,  in  the  Swedish 
exhibit,  and  the  fact  became  the  more  noticeable  by  contrast  with  the  elab- 
oration, refinement,  and  harmony  of  its  next  neighbor,  Italy.  The  artistic 
products  of  Italy — and  every  thing  she  exhibited  was  artistic — left  a  pleas- 
ing impression.  If  she  has  not  opened  new  avenues  for  the  employment 
of  the  artisan,  she  at  least  preserves  the  spirit  of  her  past  achievements. 
It  is  evident  that  the  numerous  schools  for  instruction  in  special  indus- 
tries which  are  in  operation  in  all  her  large  cities  are  conducted  upon 
broad  and  generous  principles.  This  is  forcibly  and  happily  illustrated  in 
wood-carving.  The  armoires  and  book-cases  were  constructed  with  archi- 
tectural knowledge  ;  they  were  symmetrical  in  their  general  proportions ; 
the  finely  cut  forms  which  ornamented  a  panel  or  pilaster  were  held  in 
subordination  to  the  central  thought.  A  good  deal  of  the  Venetian  carved 
work  of  the  kind  often  brought  home  by  collectors  is  painfully  bulbous ; 
but  this  was  left  in  Italy,  as  not  worthy  to  be  offered  for  competition. 
The  criticism,  however,  was  sharply  made,  that  in  the  fine  arts  of  sculpt- 
ure and  painting  Italy  was  in  her  decadence ;  that  there  were  left  only 
memories  of  Raphael ;  that  her  sculptors  did  not  possess  even  strength 
enough  to  imitate  Michael  Angelo;  but  it  must  be  said  in  behalf  of  jus- 


ITALIAN  ART. 


171 


tice  that  the  best  painters  of  Italy  did  not  send  their  works,  and  that 
much  of  the  sculpture  was  of  a  commercial  sort,  and  was  brought  by  deal- 
ers for  purposes  of  sale. 

Tlie  art  instincts  and  culture  of  Italy  were  everywhere  evident.  The 
mosaics,  faience,  bronzes,  and  ornaments  in  silver  and  gold  were  not  serv- 
ile copies  of  antique  models,  but  original  designs  executed  in  the  finest 
spirit  of  the  classic  art  of  Greece  and  Rome.  From  Italy  only  could  have 
come  such  a  rare  and  beautiful  collection  of  faience  as  that  of  Torquato 
Castellani — a  collection  which  has  excited  the  desire  for  possession  among 
the  museums  of  Europe.  Its  presence  in  Philadelphia  taught  us,  for  the 
first  time  by  actual  sight,  the  splendor  of  the  ceramic  art  in  Italy  from 
1460  to  the  sixteenth  century.  Very  many  of  the  pieces  we  have  hereto- 
fore seen,  said  to  be  "  Maiolica,"  "  Gobbio,"  and  "  Delia  Robbia,"  were  in- 
teresting because  of  their  historical  value,  for  they  were  not  always  hand- 
some ;  but  the  splendid  Castellani  collection  told  a  new  story.  With  this 
pottery  there  were  quaint  bits  of 
cloth  and  carpets,  curious  objects  of 
art,  and  fragments  of  antique  statues. 
This  collection  should  be  placed  per- 
manently in  the  Metropolitan  Muse- 
um. Italy  was  not  content  to  appeal 
to  the  artistic  sense  through  the  eye 
alone.  From  Venice  there  came  a 
bell  made  by  the  brothers  Poll.  It 
was  of  exquisite  shape,  curving  to 
its  base  with  the  grace  of  a  lily. 
Its  sides  were  artistically  ornament- 
ed with  graceful  forms,  delicately 
carved  in  relief.  But  the  most  at- 
tractive part  of  this  bell  was  its  tone. 
Many  times  the  writer  visited  it,  and 
to  his  passing  salute  it  never  failed 
to  give  response,  deep,  sweet,  and  clear.  Of  all  the  crowded  memories  of 
our  great  exposition,  that  of  the  bell  is  one  of  the  most  dearly  cherished. 


Saxou  Pitcher. 


The  best  inspirations  of  Murillo  and  Velasquez  have  descended  to  some 
of  the  modern  Spanish  painters.  The  men  who  are  giving  new  glory  and 
a  more  hopeful  future  to  the  art  of  painting  are :  Mercade,  author  of  the 
"  Translation  of  St.  Francis  ;"  Valles,  who  painted  "  The  Insanity  of  Don- 
na Juana  of  Castile ;"  Guisbert,  who  painted  "  The  Landing  of  the  Pil- 


172 


ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 


grims ;"  Vera,  author  of  "  The  Burial  of  St.  Lawrence."     These  masterly 
works  are  full  of  learning,  dignity,  and  dramatic  power. 

While  the  highest  commendations  should  be  given  to  the  fine  art  of 
painting  in  Spain,  her  industries  also  occupy  the  highest  position.  The  col- 
lection of  objects  in  damaskeen  was  to  Spain  what  the  Castellani  ceramics 
were  to  Italy.  During  the  Middle  Ages  the  art  of  damaskeening  flour- 
ished in  Italy,  as  has  been  described  in  another  place ;  but  it  is  said  at 
first  to  have  come  from  the  East.  The  monk  Theophile  declared  that  if 
it  did  not  originate  there,  the  Arabs  at  least  excelled  in  it. 


Spnuisb  Uaiuiitikcen. 

The  most  ancient  of  works  in  damaskeen  date  from  the  eleventh  to 
the  thirteenth  century.  It  was,  however,  in  the  thirteenth  century  that 
the  art  reached  its  greatest  development.  At  Damascus  and  Aleppo,  in 
Egypt,  the  manufacture  of  objects  garnished  with  incrustations  of  gold 
and  silver  was  carried  on  for  the  uses  and  decoration  of  the  houses  of  ca- 
liphs, sultans,  and  emirs.  At  that  period  were  made  the  cups,  lanterns, 
vases,  and  boxes  so  rarely  seen  at  the  present  day,  and  upon  which,  by 
the  side  of  the  titles  of  honor  which  glorified  the  owners,  were  engraved 


SPANISH  DAMASKEEN. 


173 


tlie  names  of  the  artists.  The  art  had  its  schools  and  masters,  whose  pe- 
culiar styles  can  be  traced  seven  hundred  years  after  their  authors  have 
ceased  to  exist.     The  work  of  the  earlier  centuries  is  indescribably  rich 


m  ornamentation.  It  is  finely  engraved  and  loaded  with  incrustations, 
which  are  interlaced  with  the  most  capricious  designs.  Xowhere  is  the 
divine  art  of  geometry  more  wonderfully  displayed  than  in  damaskeening. 


174  ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 

This  art  is  attempted  by  some  of  the  modern  nations  with  unimportant 
results ;  so  it  appeared,  at  least,  in  the  presence  of  the  splendid  Spanish 
collection.  Spain  has  not  lost  the  rich  inheritance  left  her  by  the  Moors. 
The  cups,  vases,  boxes,  and  amulets,  which  were  seen  side  by  side  with  the 
rarest  work  of  antiquity,  showed  that  they  did  not  have  that  feeble  exe- 
cution which  comes  with  mere  imitation,  but  new  and  graceful  designs, 
and  the  highest  kind  of  workmanship.  The  material  was  costly,  the  de- 
signs elaborate,  the  execution  perfect.  Spain  has  preserved  others  of  the 
ancient  arts.  A  piece  of  repousse  work  was  complete  in  its  execution, 
while  the  composition  was  symmetrical.  There  were  objects  in  metal, 
such  as  Hispano-Moresque  vases  in  bronze,  and  handsome  armor  mounted 
in  silver  and  gold,  and  loaded  with  ornamentation.  There  were  silk  and 
woolen  cloths  of  sober  colors,  and  rich  in  design.  The  pottery  was  of  a 
most  primitive  kind ;  jugs  and  water-coolers,  such  as  the  women  bear  to 
and  from  the  fountains. 


From  the  other  countries  bordering  upon  the  Mediterranean  there  came 
no  evidence  of  revival  from  their  long  decadence.  Turkey,  Egypt,  Mo- 
rocco, and  Tunis  presented  pretty  much  the  same  aspect.  They  each  ex- 
liibited,  with  differences,  the  same  character  of  objects.  There  were  rugs, 
carpets,  cloths,  curtains,  shawls,  and  embroideries  w^orked  in  gold  and  sil- 
ver threads  and  many -colored  braids.  There  were  weapons  of  war  and 
armor  richly  inlaid,  and  embossed  plates  of  brass  covered  with  intricate 
geometrical  figures. 

There  was  pottery  of  a  primitive  kind,  made  of  yellow-gray  clay,  and 
slightly  decorated ;  and  there  were  cone-shaped  coffee-cups  with  an  odd- 
looking  coffee-pot  and  platter,  all  made  of  brass.  From  the  Upper  Nile 
came  cups,  spoons,  pijDes,  candlesticks,  and  trinkets,  worked  and  carved 
from  a  black  and  red  stone,  and  a  great  many  other  quaint  and  interesting 
tilings.  Each  one  of  the  exhibits  of  these  countries  had  the  delightful  ap- 
pearance of  a  hric-d-hrac  shop.  Almost  every  article  had  historic  or  pict- 
uresque value,  and  would  have  been  an  addition  to  a  museum.  Indeed, 
these  collections  contained  enough  of  the  former  greatness  of  the  Orient 
to  show  how  often  the  younger  nations  of  the  West  have  gone  to  that 
prolific  source  of  color  and  design  for  suggestion  and  inspiration. 


The  Arab  and  the  Cossack  were  in  close  proximity  at  the  exposition,  and 
the  passage  from  one  to  the  other  was  of  extreme  interest.  The  gossamer 
airy  cloths  of  the  one,  and  the  thick  woolens  and  heavy  furs  of  the  other, 
told  the  stories  of  Southern  heat  and  Northern  cold.     The  Eussians  have 


INDUSTRIAL  ART  IN  RUSSIA. 


175 


evidently  gone  to  the  Orient,  however,  for  their  decoration,  and  have  not 
comprehended  how  to  nse  what  they  borrow,  for  card-eases,  snuff-boxes, 
and  toilet  articles  of  all  kinds  were  richly  enameled  in  arabesque ;  but  they 
fail,  where  imitation  might  expect  to  fail,  in  preserving  harmony  of  color 
and  delicacy  of  adjustment  in  design.  And  then  they  attempt  that  which 
the  laws  of  art  forbid.     Upon  some  prettily  decorated,  salver  lay  the  sem- 


Camel  Saddle Egypt. 

blance  of  a  white  napkin,  or  upon  some  perfume-box  a  lady's  lace  hand- 
kerchief. For  an  instant  tlie  eye  is  deceived,  and  then  turns  away,  vexed 
that  so  much  of  labor  and  good  material  should  be  wasted  in  the  mere  im- 
itation of  an  object  which  suggests  no  thought  of  beauty.  A  large  piece 
of  work  in  repousse,  by  the  artist  Sassikoff,  contained  excellent  modeling 
and  good  workmanship.  The  composition  of  this  piece,  which  was  in 
alto-rilievOj  was  somewhat  crowded.    Several  figures  and  groups  of  figures 


176 


ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 


in  bronze  were  exhibited  as  "  commercial "  bronzes.  They  were  spirited 
in  conception  and  handling,  and  all  the  more  attractive  because  the  sub- 
jects were  novel.  Some  of  them  were  out-of-door  scenes,  descriptive  of 
the  life  of  the  hunter  in  his  picturesque  costume. 

The  people  of  the  North  of  Europe  do  not  seem  to  display  originality 
or  invention  in  the  potter's  art.  A  very  neat  and  successful  imitation,  or 
adaptation  it  might  be  called,  came  from  Denmark,  in  the  shape  of  vases, 
jars,  pitchers,  and  bass-reliefs,  made  of  red  clay,  and  ornamented  with  clas- 
sical figures  and  groups  in  black,  after  the  manner  of  the  Etruscans.  They 
were  reproductions,  so  far  as  it  is  possible  to  imitate  what  is  inimitable. 


A  consideration  of  the  magnificent  exhibition  made  by  China  and  Ja- 
pan, for  good  reasons,  has  been  reserved  until  the  last. 

It  is  the  first  time,  at  least  in  the  case  of  Japan,  that  the  Celestials  have 

appeared  at  an  international  exhibition 
represented  by  a  large  body  of  distin- 
guished officials.  It  is  the  only  instance 
where  the  Imperial  Government  of  Ja- 
pan has  used  its  power  and  patronage 
to  insure  a  complete  representation  of 
the  arts  and  industries  of  all  the  people 
of  that  country. 

A  description  of  the  artistic  objects 
displayed  by  China  and  Japan  has  been 
reserved  for  the  close  of  this  chapter  be- 
cause they  were  more  artistic,  beautiful, 
and  attractive  than  those  of  any  other 
nation ;  because  the  novelty,  freshness, 
and  infinite  grace  of-  the  decoration  of 
these  ceramics,  bronzes,  screens,  fans,  and 
lacquer  work  will  exert  a  wide  and  posi- 
tive infiuence  upon  American  art  indus- 
tries, an  influence  more  immediate  and 
enduring  in  its  action  than  that  of  any 
one  country,  or  perhaps  of  all  the  coun- 
tries combined,  which  exhibited  at  the 
Centennial  Exposition.  From  this  dec- 
Ginss  Lamp.-From  Mosque  in  caiio.  laratiou  of  belief,  it  is  uot  to  be  sup- 
posed that  the  Chicopee  works  are  likely  at  once  to  turn  out  numbers  of 
symmetrical  bronzes,  inlaid  with  threads  of  silver  and  gold,  or  that  the 


ANTIQUITY  OF  CHINESE  ART. 


177 


potteries  at  Trenton  and  Cincinnati  will  at  short  notice  rival  the  marvels 
of  decorated  pottery  of  Satsuma  and  Hizen.  It  may  be  believed,  how- 
ever, that  the  astonishing  brilliancy  of  the  decoration  of  Chinese  porce- 


Powtai,  the  God  of  Couteutmeut, 

lain,  and  the  originality  and  poetic  feeling  which  give  to  Japanese  art  its 
distinctive  character,  will  strongly  impress  themselves  upon  our  young 
and  sensitive  civilization. 

China  has,  for  a  long  while,  been  familiar  to  the  Western  World.    We 

12 


178 


ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 


have  known  its  philosophy,  its  religion,  and  the  manners  and  customs  of 
its  peojDle;  but  the  period  when  the  products  of  its  arts  and  industries 
were  first  introduced  into  Europe  is  not  precisely  known. 

The  narrative  of  the  voyages  of  Marco  Polo,  the  Yenetian,  which  was 
printed  in  France  in  1307,  excited  the  liveliest  interest  by  its  description 
of  what  he  had  seen,  and  especially  of  porcelain,  during  his  long  resi- 
dence in  China.  It  is  said  that  porcelain  was  first  introduced  into  Europe 
by  the  Portuguese.     With  what  wonder  and  curiosity  must  the  amateurs 


Imperial  Robe.    Chinese. 

and  collectors  of  that  day  have  gazed  upon  this  strange  substance  from  an 
unknown  and  far-distant  country !  It  was  so  hard  as  to  resist  a  fire  which 
melted  metals ;  the  sharpest  instrument  could  not  scratch  its  surface  ;  it 
had  grace  of  form  and  harmonious  tone  in  the  midst  of  startling  brill- 
iancy of  colors,  in  all  of  which  it  far  outrivaled  the  finest  work  of  Palissy, 
Delia  Robbia,  or  the  manufacturers  of  Limoges. 

More  than  two  hundred  years  have  elapsed  since  the  period  of  the  in- 
troduction of  Chinese  porcelain  into  Europe.  At  this  international  expo- 
sition, Europe  and  Asia  came  together,  in  the  way  of  comparison  of  their 


CHINA  COMPARED  WITH  JAPAN.  179 

products,  as  they  never  had  before ;  and  the  impartial  spectator  passed 
from  one  to  the  other  to  find  that,  so  far  as  the  ceramic  art  is  concerned, 
with  all  the  experience  and  skill  of  two  centuries,  Europe  has  not  ad- 
vanced to  the  high  standard  of  the  Celestials. 

They  have  copied  from  the  Chinese  and  Japanese,  but  are  yet  igno- 
rant of  that  hard,  transparent  glaze  of  true  porcelain,  which,  fusing  with 
the  body  of  the  object,  is  able  to  resist  the  greatest  heat,  and  which  also 
admits  of  any  amount  of  decoration.  Neitlier  have  they  learned  the  many 
secrets  of  the  application  of  colors  in  the  decoration  of  pottery. 

A  Chinese  authority  says  that  the  making  of  pottery  began  during  the 
reign  of  Hoang-Ti,  from  2698  to  2599  b.c.  The  fruits  of  these  thousands 
of  years  of  labor  were  seen  at  the  Centennial  Exposition.  Tables,  shelves, 
and  cabinets  were  filled  and  crowded  with  every  style  and  variety  of  por- 
celain. Heretofore  the  hungry  collector  had  been  able  now  and  then  to 
find  a  cup  or  vase ;  upon  this  occasion  he  was  surprised  at  the  large  vari- 
ety of  jars,  vases,  urns,  cups,  and  plates,  many  of  which  he  had  never  be- 
fore heard  of,  and  all  of  them  attractive.  There  were  superb  silks,  rich- 
ly decorated  robes,  grotesquely  carved  bedsteads,  and  cabinets,  and  curi- 
ous bronzes,  more  ancient  than  those  of  Egypt ;  also  bells,  braziers,  and 
other  strange  and  interesting  articles  made  in  metal.  There  were  flower- 
stands  and  seats  made  of  teak-wood,  of  symmetrical  shape,  with  graceful 
carving  in  low-relief. 

In  the  discussion  of  the  art  industries  of  the  Asiatics,  as  compared 
with  those  of  Europe,  China  and  Japan  have  been  classed  together.  These 
two  nations  have  also  been  associated  in  the  influence  it  is  supposed  they 
will  exert  upon  American  taste ;  yet  to  the  Japanese  should  be  assigned 
much  the  larger  share ;  and  while  this  opinion  is  firmly  held,  it  is  not 
from  any  failure  to  recognize  the  importance  of  the  artistic  and  commer- 
cial relations  between  China  and  the  United  States.  For  many  years  past 
our  ships  have  dropped  anchor  in  her  harbors,  her  teas  have  refreshed  us, 
her  silks  have  graced  the  forms  of  our  women,  her  porcelain  has  been  or- 
namental and  useful  in  our  houses,  and  in  those  arts  in  which  she  excels 
we  have  lost  nothing  of  our  admiration.  The  art  of  China  has  its  distinct 
ive  excellence,  yet  in  many  of  the  industries  where  she  comes  into  compe- 
tition with  Japan  she  is  inferior.  It  is  necessary  to  admit  that  her  inter- 
course with  Europe  has  been  the  means  of  introducing  into  her  workshops 
bad  styles.  Especially  is  this  true  of  the  decoration  of  pottery.  Within 
the  past  decade  she  has  copied  meretricious  European  models,  and  vainly 
attempted  to  imitate  those  of  her  successful  rival,  Japan. 

While  for  eighteen  hundred  years  there  has  been  more  or  less  of  com- 
munication between  these  two  great  nations  of  the  East,  yet  to  Western 


180 


AET  EDUCATION  APPLIED   TO  INDUSTRY. 


Europe,  for  more  than  two  hundred  years,  Japan  lias  been  closed  from 
view.  It  has  only  been  within  the  last  twenty  years  that  her  exquisite 
products  have  found  their  way  into  the  art  commerce  of  Europe  and  the 
United  States,  and  already  they  have  gained  the  enthusiastic  admira- 
tion of  the  connoisseurs  of  Paris  and  London.  But  Europe  had  never 
witnessed  a  spectacle  so  varied,  rich,  and  brilliant  as  the  Centennial  Ex- 
position.    At  the  Vienna  Exposition,  in  1873,  Japan  was  only  partially 


Japanese  Military  Costume. 

represented.  Her  commissioners  were  not  appointed  until  1872.  They 
had  no  time  for  preparation  in  a  work  to  whicli  they  were  all  unaccus- 
tomed ;  at  the  same  time,  the  timid  manufacturers  and  merchants  were 
suspicious  of  the  outside  world,  and  were  unwilling  to  trust  their  goods  to 
the  risks  of  such  an  undertaking.  The  case  of  the  Philadelphia  Exposi- 
tion was  very  different.  The  Imperial  Government  began  operations  in 
1874.  A  commission  was  appointed  of  more  than  forty  persons,  who  were 
either  officers  of  distinction,  or  influential  representatives  of  the  industry 


JAPANESE  ART  IN  ITS  GLORY. 


181 


and  commerce  of  the  country.  The  provincial  authorities  were  instructed 
to  assist  the  people  with  money  and  advice  to  take  part  in  the  exposition. 
The  value  of  the  articles  sent  to  Philadelphia  was  two  hundred  thousand 
dollars.  The  Government  spent  thirty  thousand  dollars  in  making  a  col- 
lection of  its  own.  It  advanced  seventy  thousand  dollars  to  assist  manu- 
facturers in  the  production  of  works  which  would  be  an  honor  to  national 
art  and  industry.  Three  hundred  thousand  dollars  were  also  appropriated 
for  general  expenses,  including  the  cost  of  transport  of  goods  to  and  from 
Philadelphia,  and  the  expenses  of  such  merchants  as  chose  to  accompany 
their  wares.    It  may  be  said,       ^ 

however,  at  this  point,  that      ^fv^  flli^K>lpt»  ^^ 

only  a  limited  number  of 
these  beautiful  objects  have 
been  taken  back  to  Japan  ; 
for  long  before  the  close 
of  the  exposition  they  had 
been  purchased  by  eager 
connoisseurs  and  the  great 
museums  of  this  country 
and  Europe. 

There  were  more  than 
two  hundred  and  fifty  Jap- 
anese exhibitors;  fifty -two 
of  these  were  manufacturers 
of  pottery,  twenty -four  of 
lacquer-ware.  The  metal- 
workers numbered  thirty- 
three.  These  figures  are 
given  to  show  the  propor- 
tion in  numbers  of  one  in- 
dustry to  another,  and  that 
the  display  was  not  made 
by  a  few  merchants,  but  by 
a  large  number  of  persons 
from  different  parts  of  the 
empire.  The  Centennial 
Exposition  saw  the  full  flow- 
er and  glory  of  Japanese  art.  A  great  empire,  which  for  two  centuries 
had  established  non-intercourse  with  foreigners,  and  whose  products  had 
at  no  time,  to  any  extent,  reached  European  markets,  chose  this  exposition 
as  the  field  wherein  to  reveal  the  wealth  of  its  resources. 


Chinese  Ornameut. 


182  ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED   TO  INDUSTRY. 

It  would  be  difficult  to  say  wliether  the  Japauese  excel  most  in  the 
manufacture  of  bronzes  or  pottery.  Jacquemart,  in  his  "  History  of  Por- 
celain," gives  the  following  picturesque  account  of  the  origin  of  the  man- 
ufacture of  pottery  in  Japan  :  "  In  the  spring-time  of  the  year  27  B.C.,  a 
small  vessel  departed  from  Sin-Ra,  in  China,  and  landed  in  the  province 
of  Haliraa.  The  chief  of  the  expedition,  a  pretended  son  of  the  King  of 
Sin-Ka,  established  himself  in  the  village  of  Fasa-ma,  in  the  province  of 
Omi,  where  his  followers  set  up  a  manufactory  of  porcelain." 

Griffis,  in  his  work  "  The  Mikado's  Empire,"  says  that  Japanese  art 
had  its  birth  in  mercy.  It  was  an  ancient  custom,  when  one  of  the  noble 
classes  died,  for  the  wife  and  one  or  more  of  his  retainers  to  commit  sui- 
cide and  be  buried  with  their  master.  In  other  instances  these  slaves  of 
the  deceased  lord  were  buried  alive,  with  their  heads  only  above  ground, 
and  then  stoned  to  death.  Just  after  the  commencement  of  the  Christian 
era,  one  Nomi  no  Tsukune  began  to  make  porcelain  vases  and  clay  figures 
of  men.  These  figures  were  afterward  substituted  for  the  human  beings 
who  were  devoted  to  the  horrible  custom  of  following  their  masters  in 
death.  Both  Jacquemart  and  Griffis  tell  this  story,  but  with  unimportant 
differences.  There  are  other  Japanese  legends  which  attribute  the  inven- 
tion of  pottery  to  yet  earlier  dates.  After  the  sixth  century  its  history  is 
given  in  detail,  and  no  doubt  with  accuracy.  It  shows  that  at  a  com- 
paratively recent  date  Japan  received  from  China  the  secrets  of  this  ex- 
quisite industry.  But  the  Japanese,  so  imaginative,  gifted,  and  skillful, 
have  passed  from  imitation,  and  become  creators.  For  many  hundred 
years  they  have  excelled  their  masters. 

There  was  a  strange  and  delightful  fascination  within  the  area  which 
inclosed  the  Japanese  display  at  the  Centennial  Exposition.  It  was  not 
alone  that  one  stood  in  the  presence  of  a  nation  whose  blood  had  run  un- 
mixed with  that  of  other  races  far  back  beyond  the  days  of  Greece  and 
Rome,  or  that  their  history  was  filled  with  romance  of  surpassing  interest, 
but  that  these  products  of  their  hands  were  more  beautiful  than  any  thing 
ever  seen  before. 

How  grandiose  were  these  Arita  vases,  tall  and  graceful,  resplendent 
with  rich  and  harmonious  flora!  How  superbly  decorative  were  the  wide- 
spreading  bowls  from  Ilizen  ;  one  with  its  fishes  in  strong  relief,  with 
its  deep  translucent  blue,  a  tone  of  color  never  beheld  before,  except  in 
the  deep-blue  sea ;  and  others  gorgeous  in  red,  green,  and  gold !  Upon 
these  was  painted  the  mythical  zoology  of  this  artistic  people.  Here  were 
strange  dragons,  part  bird  and  part  crocodile,  with  examples  of  many  oth- 
er creatures.  When  they  breathe,  the  breath  turns  to  pure  gold.  Here 
were  amphibious  monsters,  jishin  uwo  (earthquake  fish),  plunging  in  a  sea 


A  BEAUTIFUL  VASE. 


18[ 


of  infinite  iridescent  tints  of  violet,  pink,  and  green.  Storks  in  vast  flocks 
rode  upon  golden  clouds ;  turtles,  said  to  have  lived  ten  thousand  years, 
with  fringing  tails,  crept  across  the  plain  ;  while  interspersed  with  all  these 
in  charming  confusion  were  flowers  of  every  hue,  such  as  could  only  he 
found  in  the  mythical  world  of  this  imaginative  people.  But  the  fantastic 
and  grotesque  form  only  a  small  part  of  Japanese  decoration.  The  writer 
has  in  view  a  flower-vase  from  the  village  of  Ota,  which  is  masterly  and 
beautiful.  It  is  some  thirty  inches  in  height,  its  shape  is  exceedingly 
graceful,  and  it  has  two  light  handles  growing  out  from  the  neck  near  its 
upper  rim.  The  body  is  of  a  warm  gray  tone,  and  is  encircled  by  irregu- 
lar white  lines  or  bands.  Upon  tliis  body,  raised  in  applied  paste,  and  ac- 
curately modeled,  are  a  flock  of  wild  geese,  which  are  screaming,  flying, 
darting,  and  plunging  into  a  cool  bed  of  reeds  and  long  gi'asses  which  rise 
from  the  curving  base  of  the 
vase.  On  its  neck  are  several 
dainty  fans  in  red,  green,  and 
gold,  and  the  same  harmoni- 
ous colors,  in  tasteful  patterns, 
decorate  the  upper  and  lower 
borders,  their  positive  tones 
giving  emphasis  to  the  pre- 
vailing tint  of  gray. 

This  is  one  of  many  beau- 
tiful vases  of  different  shape, 
color,  and  decoration,  and 
each  a  work  of  art.  In  all 
this  charming  array  of  cups, 
plaques,  vases,  and  other 
works  in  pottery,  there  was 
the  greatest  variety,  and  repe- 
tition was  rare.  The  designs 
were  original,  the  tones  fresh 
and  pure,  the  workmanship 
skillf  uL  In  every  respect,  ex- 
cept that  of  architectural  construction,  they  were  superior  to  the  pottery 
of  other  nations,  while  they  had  characteristics  all  their  own.  In  their 
ceramics  the  Japanese  never  attempt  a  servile  imitation  of  an}^  object.  In 
all  of  their  decoration  they  work  directly  from  nature ;  but  if  they  draw 
from  a  tree,  flower,  bird,  or  landscape,  it  is  to  suggest  an  impression  which 
strikes  the  beholder  when  first  seeing  it,  rather  than  to  present  that  close 
imitation  which  leaves  nothing  to  the  imagination. 


Japanese  Monster. 


184 


ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 


The  Satsuma  and  Kioto  ware  are  now  widely  known  and  warmly  ad- 
mired for  their  singular  originality  and  fresh  and  happy  suggestions.  The 
designs  of  flowers,  grasses,  and  birds  are  full  of  wayward  grace,  while  their 
delicate  tints  of  color,  by  intelligent  juxtaposition,  are  most  exquisitely 
harmonized.  Many  of  the  provinces,  cities,  and  villages  of  Japan  were 
represented  by  works  in  pottery.  Among  these  were  the  cities  of  Kago- 
shima,  in  the  province  of  Satsuma,  and  Igano-Musa,  in  the  province  of 
Owari ;  while  both  faience  and  porcelain  came  from  several  places  in  the 
provinces  of  Ise,  Mino,  Kaga,  Owari,  and  Kioto ;  from  Ota,  near  Yoko- 
hama ;  the  village  of  Arita,  in  the  province  of  Hizen ;  and  the  great  cities 
of  Tokio  and  Yokohama. 

The  potter's  art  has  risen  to  a  state  of  great  perfection  in  Japan,  be- 
cause nature  has  there  brought  together  all  the  minerals  and  earths  need- 
ed for  the  purpose  of  manufacture.  The  small  town  of  Arita,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Hizen,  is  one  of  the  great  centres  of  the  manufacture  of  pottery 
in  Japan.    Within  the  limited  space  of  half  a  mile  in  diameter,  imbedded 

in  the  rock,  are  found  all  the 
minerals  and  clays  needed  to 
make  the  splendid  bowls  and 
vases  known  as  "  Hizen  "  ware. 
Here  are  the  silex,  kaolin,  feld- 
spar; and  here  are  other  subtle 
substances,  unknown  to  us,  whose 
use  in  the  cunning  fingers  of 
the  Japanese  artist  display  ef- 
fects which  excite  our  wonder 
and  delight.  The  poorest  peas- 
ant of  Arita  finds  the  materials 
for  labor  at  his  door.  Happily 
the  tools  of  the  potter  are  not 
costly,  and  all  that  is  needed  be- 
sides are  industry,  skill,  and  the 
artistic  sense ;  these  are  natural 
characteristics  with  the  Japa- 
nese. There  are  other  interesting  circumstances  attending  the  manufact- 
ure of  pottery  in  Japan.  Each  shop  has  a  kiln  in  the  open  yard,  where 
the  pottery  is  slightly  baked  while  yet  under  the  modeler's  hands.  The 
finishing  kilns  usually  belong  to  the  community.  Those  at  Arita  are 
more  than  two  hundred  in  number,  and  are  situated  here  and  there  on 
the  boundaries  of  the  village.  They  are  rented  to  the  manufacturers,  and 
any  man  may  bring  his  pottery  to  be  baked  in  the  common  kilns. 


x^\^l^^4v^^^^^^^^ 


Japanese  Dragon. 


METAL -WORK  OF  JAPAN.  185 

One  could  not  pass  from  the  study  of  this  brilliant  display  of  porce- 
lain and  faience,  so  reiined,  chaste,  and  forcible,  to  that  of  Western  Europe, 
and  not  notice  the  painful  contrast  of  feeble  imitation  and  helpless  expe- 
dients. A  European  dealer  one  day  expressed  his  surprise  at  the  enthu- 
siasm excited  by  the  art  of  the  Chinese  and  Japanese.  He  wondered  how 
any  one  could  compare  it  with  the  faience  of  Minton,  or  the  cloisonne  of 
Elkington  or  Barbedienne.  It  was  not  possible  to  explain  to  this  gen- 
tleman why  these  mythical  creatures,  these  suggestions  of  a  multifarious 
flora,  were  better  decorations  for  pottery  than  genre  pictures  of  well-dressed 
little  boys  and  girls;  and  when  the  discussion  came  to  cloisonne  ware, 
the  difficulty  increased ;  for  while  Barbedienne  and  Elkington  have  done 
their  best  to  copy  Japanese  cloisonne,  there  is  just  that  difference  be- 
tween the  one  and  the  other  which  separates  the  artistic  from  the  me- 
chanical. 

It  is  the  difference  between  the  most  skillful  workmanship  with  deli- 
cate juxtapositions  of  color,  in  sober  but  decided  tones,  worked  into  the 
most  marvelously  intricate  and  minute  designs,  on  the  one  hand,  and  in- 
experienced workmanship  with  coarse  designs  and  crude  color  on  the  oth- 
er. Japanese  cloisonne,  and,  indeed,  their  other  manufactures  of  modern 
days,  are  not  equal  to  those  made  when  Japan  was  not  subject  to  de- 
moralizing foreign  influence.  A  new  art  is  the  application  of  cloisonne 
to  porcelain  instead  of  metal.  The  cup  or  vase  used  for  this  purpose  has 
the  glaze  ground  off,  and  presents  a  rough  instead  of  smooth  surface,  wher- 
ever the  vitrifiable  substance  is  to  be  applied.  The  metallic  wire  which 
marks  the  outline  of  the  figures  is  fixed  on  the  porcelain,  not  by  solder- 
ing, as  in  the  other  case,  but  by  the  application  of  a  fusible  glass.  After- 
ward these  lines  become  more  firmly  attached  by  contact  with  the  fused 
enamels.  This  novel  and  charming  application  of  cloisonne  is  made  upon 
porcelain  of  turquois-blue,  with  figures  of  butterflies,  flowers,  and  leaves, 
which  are  made  in  red,  green,  and  gold.  These  cups,  vases,  and  plates 
are  very  pretty,  and  are  not  always  high-priced. 

The  display  of  Japanese  bronzes  fairly  divided  one's  enthusiastic  ad- 
miration with  that  of  pottery.  They  were  equally  original  and  artistic 
with  the  faience  and  porcelain.  Novice  and  expert  have  alike  examined 
these  wonderful  bronzes,  amazed  at  the  skill  and  patience  which  have  pro- 
duced such  singular  objects,  with  their  elaborate  inlays  of  filigree,  rival- 
ing the  damaskeen  of  the  thirteenth  century.  But  from  observation 
alone,  none  could  explain  the  mystery  of  this  steel-blue  surface  which  was 
veined  with  microscopic  threads  of  gray,  red,  and  gold.  In  the  native 
tongue  it  is  called  "  moku-me,"  which  may  be  translated  to  mean  "  veins 
of  wood,"  although  wood  does  not  enter  into  its  composition.     From  ofli- 


186 


ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 


cial  sources  we  gather  an  explanation  of  this  charming  art.  "  Moku-me  " 
is  composed  of  several  metals,  chiefly  of  white  silver,  red  copper,  and  a 
dark -blue  alloy.  These  are  overlaid  and  soldered  together  by  hammer- 
ing and  kneading.  Any  inequalities  in  the  homogeneous  plates  are  filled 
up  by  new  metal  of  one  or  another  kind,  such  as  the  artist  with  the  ham- 
mer may  think  best  for  the  purpose.  These  operations  are  many  times 
repeated.  Finally,  the  pliable  mass  of  metal  is  beaten  out  into  thin  sheets, 
presenting  a  beautiful  surface  of  infinitely  small  veins  of  red,  blue,  and 
white.  Thus  fashioned,  it  passes  into  the  hands  of  other  artists,  to  be 
made  into  objects  of  use  and  beauty.  This  material  formed  the  body  of 
many  of  the  more  costly  vases,  which  were  otherwise  superbly  decorated 
with  incrustations  and  inlayings  of  silver  and  other  metals. 

The  larger  number  of  bronzes,  however,  were  of  less  costly  manufact- 
ure. They  were  vases,  flower-stands,  incense-boxes,  all  charmingly  deco- 
rated, including  imitations  of  every  object  in  nature  which  could  have 
come  within  the  ken  of  the  artist,  from  a  crab  to  a  bull,  and  of  an  indefi- 
nite number  of  other  creations,  humorous  and  grotesque,  but  seldom  re- 
pulsive, which  exist  in  the  lively 
imagination  of  a  Japanese. 

The  lacquer-work  of  these  peo- 
ple has  these  many  years  graced  the 
tables  of  every  well-ordered  house- 
hold ;  but  never  before  had  it  been 
seen  in  such  perfection  of  delicate 
workmanship  of  design,  richness, 
and  variety  of  color.  Almost  every 
object  brought  to  us  by  the  Jap- 
anese exhibited  the  highest  sense 
of  grace  and  poetry  in  decoration. 
There  were  silk  screens,  painted 
with  designs  of  infinite  beauty  and  fine  poetic  feeling ;  carved  wood  and 
ivory ;  picturesque  arms  and  armor ;  and  gorgeous  stuffs  of  silk  and  wool. 
The  visitor  to  all  these  lovely  things,  who  returned  again  and  again, 
who  exhausted  time  and  purse,  might  well  ask  himself :  What  is  this  en- 
chantment which  has  taken  possession  of  me  ?  What  is  it  in  these  crea- 
tions which,  more  than  any  thing  beside  in  this  great  exposition,  attracts 
and  pleases  me?  Their  novelty  might  in  some  degree  explain  the  attrac- 
tion ;  but  as  novelty  alone  soon  wears  off,  the  cause  will  be  found  in  other 
directions.  In  the  discussion  in  another  part  of  this  book  of  the  repousse 
work  of  modern  days,  as  compared  with  that  of  the  Middle  Ages,  the  su- 
periority of  the  latter  was  attributed  to  the  fact  that  the  artists  worked 


Japanese  Ornament. 


SUCCESSFUL  ART  INDUSTRY. 


187 


out  their  own  fancies,  and  were  not  subject  to  the  orders  of  a  master-work- 
man or  employer. 

What  was  true,  even  to  a  limited  degree,  of  the  European  artist  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  is  the  practice  everywliere  in  Japan.  The  manufacture  of 
its  pottery,  bronzes,  lacquer-work,  fans,  painting  on  silk,  and  the  rest,  is 
carried  on  by  the  enterprise  and  genius  of  individual,  and  not  by  associ- 
ated, labor. 

Griffis,  in  his  entertaining  book  on  "  The  Mikado's  Empire,"  says  that 
the  principles  of  centralized  capital,  large  manufactures,  and  division  of 
labor  are  as  yet  scarcely  known  in  Japan.  An  official  report  declares  that 
the  artist  in  bronzes,  who  makes  the  model,  generally  does  the  casting 
himself,  and  in  most  cases 
the  workshop  consists 
only  of  the  master's  fam- 
ily and  two  or  tliree  as- 
sistants. After  the  cast- 
ing, the  artisan  goes  over 
tlie  work  with  his  chis- 
el, while  the  bouquet 
of  flowers,  the  bunch  of 
leaves  or  grasses,  or  what- 
ever be  the  object  he 
wishes  to  depict,  is  placed 
before  him,  and  thus  the 
engraving  is  sketched  di- 
rectly from  nature.  And 
tliis  is  also  the  way  the 
potter  works.  In  this  in- 
dependent atelier,  in  this 
constant  study  of  nature,  and  of  the  little  things  and  nearest,  we  have  the 
cause  of  that  endless  variety  of  subject,  simplicity  of  treatment,  freshness, 
originality,  grace,  and  poetry  which  are  the  glory  of  Japanese  art. 

This,  then,  is  the  fascination  which  holds  us ;  and  here,  also,  in  the 
Far  East  are  found  the  true  conditions  of  successful  art  industry.  The 
head  of  the  family  is  the  artisan,  his  children  are  students,  his  cabin  an 
atelier ;  while  nature,  with  prodigal  hand,  furnishes  the  material.  The 
subjects  for  illustration  are  on  every  side.  Vines  clamber  about  his  porch, 
flowers  of  every  hue  are  in  his  garden,  while  to  him,  devout  follower  of 
Buddha,  the  beasts  of  the  fleld  and  fowls  of  the  air  have  spiritual  signifi- 
cance which  finds  pictorial  expression  in  his  decorations. 

While  so  much  of  unqualified  admiration  has  been  herein  expressed 


Chasing  Floral  DesigDS  on  Copper. 


188 


ART  EDUCATION  APPLIED  TO  INDUSTRY. 


for  Chinese  and  Japanese  decoration,  it  is  necessary  to  say  that  these  na- 
tions seriously  need  instruction  in  the  science  of  design.      The  most  ex- 
quisite decoration  will  often  be  found  upon  vases  which  are  unsymmet- 
rical  in  shape.     With  no  people  would  the  study  of 
W'^^^^    %C^M  *^^®  science  of  design  accomplish  finer  results  than 
1^^  ^1    \^j      with  the  Japanese.     They  appreciate  the  advantages 
*^^       \    I  of  a  knowledge  of  exact  forms,  and  are  introducing 

the  study  into  their  schools;  and  yet  one  can  not 
contemplate  the  introduction  in  Japan  of  European 
methods  of  instruction  in  the  art  of  design  without 
some  fear.  Any  plan  of  instruction  which  includes 
copying  from  prints,  such  as  "flower-pieces"  and 
"  Julian's  lithographs,"  would  be  demoralizing,  and 
destructive  to  the  freshness,  originality,  and  beauty 
of  Japanese  art.  What  would  lend  grace  and  sym- 
metry to  their  productions  is  a  knowledge  of  arbitrary  and  geometrical 
forms,  and  those  laws  which  belong  to  architectural  construction. 


Chinese  Inscription. 


Good  results  in  many  channels  are  flowing  from  the  Centennial  Expo- 
sition ;  but  in  no  direction  have  there  been  better  opportunities  for  infor- 
mation than  in  the  art  of 
design.  The  exhibition  of 
the  arts  and  industries  of 
all  the  nations  has  taught 
us  that,  in  order  to  achieve 
the  best  results  in  the  appli- 
cation of  art  to  industry,  we 
must  have  a  complete  sys- 
tem of  instruction,  in  pub- 
lic and  special  schools,  in 
the  science  of  design.  The 
principles  thus  established 
are,  that  the  method  of  in- 
struction in  these  schools 
shall  include  the  constant 
study  of  natural  objects ; 
that  the  artisan  must  always 

go  to  nature  for  his  models ;  and  that  independent  rather  than  associated 
labor  is  the  most  fruitful  source  of  freshness  and  originality  of  design. 


APPENDIX. 


ART  EDUCATION  IN  GREAT  BRITAIN. 

The  sclieme  for  art  education  in  Great  Britain  is  thus  set  forth  in  the 
Official  Catalogue : 

A  sum  of  money  is  voted  annually  by  Parliament  for  the  purposes  of  science 
and  art. 

This  sum  is  administered  by  the  Science  and  Art  Department,  hereinafter  called 
the  Department. 

The  head  of  the  Education  Department,  of  which  the  Science  and  Art  Depart- 
ment is  a  branch,  is  the  lord  president  of  the  council,  assisted  by  a  member  of  the 
privy  council,  who  is  called  the  vice-president  of  the  Committee  of  Council  on  Edu- 
cation, and  who  acts  under  the  direction  of  the  lord  president,  and  for  him  in  his 
absence. 

A  portion  of  the  sum  voted  is  set  apart  for  the  promotion  of  instruction  in  art 
in  tlje  United  Kingdom. 

The  object  of  this  grant  is  to  promote  instruction  in  drawing,  painting,  and 
modeling,  and  designing  for  architecture,  manufactures,  and  decoration,  especially 
among  the  industrial  classes. 

To  effect  this  object,  the  Department  will  give  aid  toward  the  teaching  of  ele- 
mentary drawing  in  elementary  day  schools;  toward  the  teaching  of  drawing  in 
night  classes  for  artisans;  toward  instruction  in  art  in  schools  of  art;  and  toward 
the  training  of  art  teachers.  The  Art  Library  and  collections  of  decorative  art  at 
South  Kensington  are  also  made  available  for  the  purposes  of  instruction  in  schools 
of  art. 

AID  TO  ELEMENTARY  DAY  SCHOOLS. 

An  elementary  school  is  a  school,  or  department  of  a  school,  at  which  elementary 
education  is  the  principal  part  of  the  education  there  given,  and  does  not  include 
any  school,  or  department  of  a  school,  at  which  the  ordinary  payments,  in  respect  of 
the  instruction,  from  each  scholar  exceed  ninepence  a  week. 

The  Department  will  encourage  the  teaching  of  drawing  in  elementary  day 
schools  at  which  the  children  are  instructed  in  drawing  by  teachers  holding  art  cer- 
tificates of  the  second  or  third  grade. 


190  APPENDIX. 

The  aid  given  by  the  Department  consists  of  payments  made  to  the  managers  of 
the  school  toward  the  cost  of  the  maintenance  and  instruction  of  the  drawing  classes 
in  the  school ;  of  prizes  awarded  to  the  children,  pupil-teachers,  or  paid  monitors 
only  of  the  school,  whose  exercises  reach  the  standard  of  excellence ;  and  of  grants 
toward  the  purchase  of  suitable  examples. 

The  Department  will  determine  the  number  of  payments  to  be  made,  and  of 
prizes  to  be  given,  annually,  by  means  of  an  examination  of  a  very  elementary  char- 
acter, called  of  the  first  grade^  in  free-hand  drawing  from  copies,  free-hand  drawing 
from  models,  and  in  practical  geometry ;  and  by  a  more  advanced  examination, 
called  of  the  second  grade,  in  free-hand,  geometric,  perspective,  and  model  drawing. 

AID  TO  TRAINING  COLLEGES  FOR  TEACHERS, 

Annual  examinations  in  drawing  of  the  second  grade  are  held  in  November  at 
each  of  the  training  colleges  under  inspection,  in  any  or  all  of  the  following  exer- 
cises, for  success  in  which  the  candidate  may  not  have  been  registered  by  the  De- 
partment since  the  24th  of  February,  1857  :  Free-hand  drawing  from  flat  examples; 
practical  geometry ;  linear  perspective ;  model  drawing ;  delineation  of  large  letters, 
numbers,  diagrams,  and  other  objects  on  the  blackboard. 

The  marks  given  for  these  exercises  are  carried  to  each  candidate's  total  for  the 
certificate  granted  by  the  Education  Department,  Whitehall. 

Candidates  who  pass  in  all  the  five  exercises  named  above  obtain  the  certificate 
("D")  for  drawing,  which  qualifies  them  to  earn  the  payments  conditionally  made 
to  the  managers  of  elementary  day  schools  on  account  of  the  teaching  of  elementary 
drawing  concurrently  with  reading  and  writing. 

A  payment  of  two  pounds  is  made  to  the  authorities  of  training  colleges  on  ac- 
count of  every  resident  student  who  obtains  the  certificate  of  the  second  grade,  sub- 
ject to  a  deduction  of  ten  shillings  on  account  of  each  of  the  required  subjects  in 
which  the  student  may  have  passed  previous  to  admission  to  the  college. 

AID  TO  ART  NIGHT  CLASSES. 

An  art  night  class  is  a  class  for  instruction  in  elementary  drawing  held  after  6 
P.M.,  to  which  the  public  is  admitted  on  payment  of  fees  within  the  reach  of  per- 
sons who  support  themselves  by  manual  labor. 

The  Department  will  give  aid  to  such  classes*  when  conducted  under  the  direc- 
tion of  a  local  committee  of  not  less  than  five  well-known  responsible  persons,  and 
meeting  at  least  once  a  week  under  instructions  by  a  teacher,  or  teachers,  holding 
the  second-grade  certificate  of  the  Department  for  Elementary  Drawing,  or  an  art- 
master's  certificate  of  the  third  grade. 


*  This  aid  will  be  extended,  on  the  merits  of  each  case  being  considered,  to  classes  for  artisans 
or  teachers  meeting  after  noon  on  Saturdays ;  to  classes  for  female  artisans  or  female  teachers 
meeting  in  the  day-time ;  and  to  science  classes  on  account  of  students  who  are  not  scholars  in  an 
elementary  day  school. 


APPENDIX.  191 

Art  night  classes  may  be  held  in  mechanics'  or  literary  institutions,  elementary 
schools,  or  in  other  educational  institutions.* 

The  Department  will  pay  annually  to  the  local  committee  of  an  art  night  class 
the  under-mentioned  sums  on  account  of  the  instruction,  in  the  night  class,  of  stu- 
dents of  the  industrial  classes,f  from  ten  to  fifteen  shillings,  according  to  their  ad- 
vancement. 

Prizes,  consisting  of  one  sum  of  twenty  pounds,  ten  sums  of  ten  pounds,  for- 
ty sums  of  five  pounds,  will  be  awarded  to  the  head  masters  of  art  night  classes  in 
which  the  results,  as  tested  by  the  examinations  of  the  Department,  and  considered 
with  reference  to  the  number  of  students  under  instruction,  shall  be  most  satis- 
factory. 

Teachers  in  charge  of  art  night  classes  who  hold  a  certificate  for  second-grade 
drawing  only  will  be  allowed  a  payment  of  ten  pounds  on  taking  the  first  certifi- 
cate of  the  third  grade. 

Prizes  of  the  second  grade  will  be  given  to  all  students  who  excel  in  the  exam- 
inations ;  and  of  the  second  or  third  grade  to  students  who  execute  highly  meritori- 
ous works  of  the  classes  named  in  clause  2  of  f  note. 

AID  TO  SCHOOLS  OF  ART. 

A  school  of  art  is  a  room  or  rooms  devoted  wholly  to  instruction  in  art,  where 
examples  of  art  are  always  open  for  study  and  inspection,  and  where  instruction  is 
given  by  a  teacher  holding  an  art  teacher's  certificate  or  certificates  of  the  third 
grade. 

The  Department  will  aid  the  instruction  given  in  schools  of  art,  when  under  the 
direction  of  a  local  committee  of  not  less  than  five  well-known  responsible  persons, 
and  instructed  by  teachers  holding  one  or  more  art  certificates  of  the  third  grade, 
provided  that  day  classes  be  held,  and  that  artisan  night  classes  meet  under  the  in- 
struction of  the  master,  in  rooms  approved  by  the  Department,  at  least  three  times 
in  each  week  for  two  hours. 

Payments  are  made  to  the  local  committee  on  account  of  persons  of  the  indus- 
trial classes,  teachers,  or  children  above  twelve  years  of  age,  who  pay  fees  for  being 
taught,  from  ten  shillings  to  three  pounds,  according  to  meritorious  work. 

The  rewards  are  not  given  to  pupils  alone,  but  every  inducement  is  held  out  to 

*  Drawing  can  not  be  taught  during  the  one  hour  and  a  half  required,  under  Article  23  of  the 
Education  Code,  for  general  instruction  in  the  night  classes  of  public  elementary  schools. 
•)•  Under  "  students  of  the  industrial  classes  "  are  included  only  : 

1.  Artisans  or  operatives  in  the  receipt  of  weekly  wages. 

2.  Coast-guards,  policemen,  and  others  who,  though  in  receipt  of  weekly  wages,  do  not  support 
themselves  by  manual  labor. 

3.  Teachers  and  pupil-teachers  of  elementary  schools  in  connection  with  the  Education  Depart- 
ment, Whitehall,  or  the  National  Board  of  Education,  Ireland,  and  students  in  training-schools. 

4.  Persons  in  the  receipt  of  salaries  of  less  than  two  hundred  pounds  per  annum. 

5.  Small  shop-keepers,  tradesmen,  and  others  whose  net  incomes  do  not  exceed  two  hundred 
pounds  per  annum. 


192  APPENDIX. 

teachers  to  advance  art  education.  Fifteen  pounds  are  paid  to  an  art  teacher  in 
schools  in  which  twenty  students  of  the  industrial  classes  are  satisfactorily  taught, 
and  thirty  pounds  for  two  art  teachers  in  schools  in  which  fifty  or  more  such  stu- 
dents are  so  taught. 

Prizes  consisting  of  one  sum  of  fifty  pounds,  three  sums  of  forty  pounds,  six 
sums  of  thirty  pounds,  twenty  sums  of  twenty  pounds,  thirty  sums  of  ten  pounds, 
will  be  awarded  to  the  head-masters  of  schools  of  art  in  which  the  results  of  in- 
struction, considered  with  reference  to  the  number  of  students,  as  tested  by  the  ex- 
aminations of  the  Department,  shall  be  most  satisfactory. 

Prizes  are  offered  to  teachers  who  qualify  themselves  for  higher  teaching. 
Grants  are  made  to  pay  the  expenses  of  teachers  who  come  to  London  to  study 
from  the  works  sent  for  competition. 

The  best  works  sent  up  for  examination  will  be  selected  to  enter  into  a  national 
competition  between  the  works  of  all  the  schools  of  art  in  the  kingdom,  and  medals 
and  prizes  will  be  awarded  to  those  students  who  execute  the  most  meritorious  of 
the  competing  works. 

The  prize  list  will  include  ten  gold  medals,  distributed  as  follows : 

One  gold  medal  for  the  best  study  from  the  antique  in  chalk  or  monochrome. 
This  study  must  be  from  a  single  figure  in  the  round,  and  must  be  executed  within 
the  dimensions  of  an  imperial  sheet. 

One  gold  medal  for  the  best  study  of  the  figure  modeled  from  the  antique. 
This  study  must  be  from  a  single  figure,  and  not  more  than  thirty  inches  in  height. 

One  gold  medal  for  the  best  example  of  painting  a  group  of  still-life  from  nat- 
ure, as  a  composition  of  color,  in  oil.  The  dimensions  of  this  work  should  be  im- 
perial size,  i.  e.,  twenty-one  and  a  half  by  twenty-nine  and  a  half  inches. 

One  gold  medal  for  the  best  example  of  painting  a  group  of  still-life  from  nat- 
ure, as  a  composition  of  color,  in  water-color.  The  dimensions  of  this  work  must 
be  twenty  by  sixteen  inches,  or,  if  of  other  proportions,  of  equal  or  nearly  equal 
surface. 

Six  medals  for  the  best  designs  in  the  three  classes — architectural  design,  sur- 
face design,  plastic  design.  A  statement  of  the  purpose  or  material  for  which  it 
is  prepared  should  be  given  on  every  competing  design. 

Twenty-five  silver  medals,  of  which  part  will  be  given  to  the  second-best  works 
in  the  various  subjects  to  which  gold  medals  are  assigned,  and  the  rest  to  meritori- 
ous works  in  the  same,  or  the  best  works  in  other,  subjects  of  study. 

Sixty  bronze  medals  to  meritorious  works  in  any  of  the  various  subjects  of 
study. 

Any  of  these  medals  may  be  withheld  if,  in  the  opinion  of  the  examiners,  the 
works  in  any  subject  are  not  of  suflScient  merit  to  deserve  them. 

Additional  prizes  of  works  of  art,  books,  etc.,  will  also  be  awarded. 

The  works  entering  into  the  national  competition  will  be  exhibited  in  London, 
and  in  some  one  of  the  more  important  towns  of  the  kingdom  where  suitable  space 
can  be  provided. 


APPENDIX.  193 

Grants  of  money  are  made  to  assist  in  the  building  of  art  schools  and  furnish- 
ing them. 

These  schools  may  also  borrow  works  of  art  and  books  from  the  Kensington 
Museum. 

Students  who  may  compete,  because  of  previous  advancement  for  admission  to 
the  National  Art  Training-school,  are  allowed  a  maintenance  of  fifteen  or  twenty 
shillings  a  week. 

There  are  national  scholarships  of  the  value  of  one  pound  per  week.  The 
Princess  of  Wales  has  given  two  scholarships  of  the  value  of  twenty-five  pounds 
and  eleven  pounds  to  the  two  female  students  who  gain  the  highest  prizes  in  the 
yearly  national  competition. 

THE  NATIONAL  ART  TRAINING-SCHOOL. 

The  National  Art  Training-school  at  South  Kensington  is  established  for  the 
purpose  of  training  art  masters  and  mistresses  for  the  United  Kingdom,  and  for  the 
instruction  of  students  in  drawing,  designing,  and  modeling,  to  be  applied  to  the 
requirements  of  trade  and  manufactures. 

The  course  of  instruction  is  as  follows  (it  should  be  understood  that  it  is  not 
progressive  in  the  order  in  which  the  stages  are  named) : 

Stage  1. — Linear  drawing  by  aid  of  instruments :  Linear  geometry  ;  mechan- 
ical and  machine  drawing ;  linear  perspective ;  details  of  architecture  from 
copies. 

Stage  2. — Free-hand  outline  drawing  of  rigid  forms  from  examples  or  copies : 
Objects;  ornament. 

Stage  3. — Free-hand  outline  drawing  from  the  "round:"  Models  and  ob- 
jects; ornament. 

Stage  4. — Shading  from  flat  examples  or  copies :  Models  and  objects ;  orna- 
ment. 

Stage  5. — Shading  from  the  "  round  "  or  solid  forms  :  Models  and  objects ; 
ornament ;  time-sketching,  and  sketching  from  memory. 

Stage  6. — Drawing  the  human  figure  and  animal  forms  from  copies :  In  out- 
line ;  shaded. 

Stage  7. — Drawing  flowers,  foliage,  and  objects  of  natural  history,  from  flat 
examples  or  copies  :  In  outline ;  shaded. 

Stage  8. — Drawing  the  human  figure,  or  animal  forms,  from  the  "  round  "  or 
nature :  In  outline  from  casts ;  shaded  (details) ;  shaded  (whole  figures) ;  stud- 
ies of  the  human  figure  from  nude  model ;  studies  of  the  human  figure  draped; 
time-sketching,  and  sketching  from  memory. 

Stage  9. — Anatomical  studies :  Of  the  human  figure ;  of  animal  forms  ;  of 
either,  modeled. 

Stage  10, — Drawing  flowers,  foliage,  landscape  details,  and  objects  of  natural 
history,  from  nature  :  In  outline  ;  shaded. 

13 


194  APPENDIX. 

Stage  11. — Painting  ornament  from  flat  examples:  In  monochrome,  in  col- 
ors, either  in  water-color,  tempera,  or  oil. 

Stage  12. — Painting  ornament  from  the  cast,  etc. :  In  monochrome,  either  in 
water-color,  oil,  or  tempera. 

Stage  13. — Painting  (general)  from  flat  examples  or  copies,  flowers,  still-life, 
etc. :  Flowers  or  natural  objects,  in  water-color,  in  oil,  or  in  tempera ;  land- 
scapes or  views  of  buildings. 

Stage  14. — Painting  (general)  direct  from  nature  :  Flowers,  or  still-life,  in  wa- 
ter-color, oil,  or  tempera  without  backgrounds;  landscapes,  or  views  of  buildings. 

Stage  15. — Painting  from  nature  groups  of  still-life,  flowers,  etc.,  as  compo- 
sitions of  color :  In  oil-color ;  in  water-color  or  tempera. 

Stage  16. — Painting  the  human  figure  or  animals  in  monochrome  from 
casts :  In  oil,  water-color,  or  tempera. 

Stage  17. — Painting  the  human  figure  or  animals  in  color:  From  the  flat  or 
copies  ;  from  nature,  nude  or  draped ;  time-sketches  and  compositions. 

Stage  18. — Modeling  ornament:  Elementary,  from  casts;  advanced,  from 
casts ;  from  drawings ;  time-sketches  from  examples  and  from  memory. 

Stage  19. — Modeling  the  human  figure  or  animals:  Elementary,  from  casts 
of  hands,  feet,  masks,  etc. ;  advanced,  from  casts  or  solid  examples ;  from  draw- 
ings ;  from  nature,  nude  or  draped. 

Stage  20. — Modeling  fruits,  flowers,  foliage,  and  objects  of  natural  history, 
from  nature. 

Stage  21. — Time -sketches  in  clay  of  the  human  figure,  or  animals,  from 
nature. 

Stage  22. — Elementary  design :  Studies  treating  natural  objects  ornament- 
ally; ornamental  arrangements  to  fill  given  spaces  in  monochrome  ;•  ornamental 
arrangements  to  fill  given  spaces  in  color ;  studies  of  historic  styles  of  ornament 
drawn  or  modeled. 

Stage  23. — Applied  designs,  technical  or  miscellaneous  studies:  Machine  and 
mechanical  drawing,  plan  drawing,  mapping,  and  surveys  done  from  measure- 
ment of  actual  machines,  buildings,  etc. ;  architectural  design ;  surface  design ; 
plastic  design. 

The  twenty-three  stages  of  instruction  are  divided  into  six  groups.     Certificates 
of  competency  to  teach  the  subjects  included  in  each  group  are  given  to  candidates 
who  pass  the  necessary  examinations,  and  are  called  certificates  of  the  third  grade. 
The  following  are  the  groups  which  form  the  subjects  of  certificates : 

Group  1. — Elementary  drawing  and  coloring:  Stages  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  10, 
and  13. 

Group  2. — Painting,  with  examination  in  styles  of  art,  and  in  the  elementary 
principles  of  ornament:  Stages  11,  12, 14,  15,  and  22. 

Group  3. — The  figure  drawn  and  painted,  with  examination  in  the  historic 
styles  of  ornament:  Stages  8,  9,  16,  and  17. 


APPENDIX.  195 

Group  4. — Modeling  ornament,  with  examination  in  styles  of  art,  and  in  the 
elementary  principles  of  ornament:  Stages  18,  20,  22. 

Group  5. — Modeling  the  figure,  with  examination  in  the  historic  styles  of 
ornament:  Stages  8,  9,  19,  21. 

Group  6. — Technical  instruction. 

FIRST  GROUP. 

Candidates  for  certificates  for  the  First  Group  who  have  attended  the  National 
Art  Training-school  must  obtain  a  recommendation  from  the  head-master  for  ad- 
mission to  the  examination.  Candidates  from  provincial  or  other  schools  must 
send  the  requisite  drawings  to  the  secretary  of  the  Department  on  the  first  Satur- 
day in  February.  They  will  receive  notice  to  come  up  for  examination  if  their 
works  be  approved. 

All  candidates  will  be  required  to  execute  an  extra  work  in  the  presence  of  the 
examiners. 

Candidates  must  be  prepared  to  instruct  a  class  in  the  presence  of  the  examiners 
in  free-hand  drawing,  geometrical  drawing,  perspective,  and  model  drawing. 

They  must  be  able  to  sketch,  in  a  given  time,  a  group  of  models,  placed  by  the 
examiners  for  that  purpose.  And  to  solve,  in  writing,  questions  in  geometry,  per- 
spective,* and  elementaiy  architecture.! 

For  the  First  Group,  the  following  works,  nine  in  number,  are  required  to  be 
sent  up : 

Stage  la.  A  sheet  of  geometrical  problems.     There  may  be  six  or  eight 

problems  selected  to  show  the  power  of  working  neatly  and  exactly  with  instru- 
ments. 

Stojge  \c.   A  sheet  of  perspective  diagrams.     This  should  contain  one  or 

two  problems  neatly  worked,  showing  the  extent  of  knowledge  possessed  by  the 

candidate. 

Stage  Id.  A  sheet  of  architectural  details.     These  should  consist  of  classic 

capitals  and  moldings,  and  Gothic  openings  for  doors  or  tracery  for  windows. 
Stage  Sb.  An  outline  of  ornament  in  low-relief  from  the  cast.     This  may  be 

from  the  lower  portion,  or  any  one  of  the  scrolls,  of  the  Madeleine  pilaster,  or 

from  one  of  the  pilasters  of  the  tomb  of  Louis  XII.,  and  must  be  executed  with 

correctness  and  delicacy. 

Stage  5a.    A  sheet  of  drawings  from  models,  shaded  in  chalk  or  pencil. 

*  In  the  perspective  paper  credit  will  be  given  for  a  knowledge  of  the  projection  of  shadows. 
The  exercise  in  elementary  architecture  will  require  a  knowledge  of  the  five  orders  of  classic  ar- 
chitecture with  their  moldings,  and  a  general  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  construction  applied 
to  ancient  architecture,  and  also  of  the  larger  distinctive  characteristics  of  Gothic  architecture  in 
England  from  the  time  of  Edward  the  Confessor  to  that  of  Henry  VII. 

f  Female  candidates  are  not  examined  in  architectural  drawing.  Candidates  who  have  passed 
in  the  advanced  stage  of  Science  Subject  III.  (building  construction)  are  also  exempt  from  the  ex- 
amination in  architecture. 


196  APPENDIX. 

These  should  be  carefully  drawn  without  backgrounds,  and  shaded  simply  to 
explain  the  separate  forms. 

Stage  5b. — A  sheet  of  ornament  shaded  from  the  cast,  in  chalk.  The  egg- 
plant portion  of  the  Ghiberti  frieze  or  other  piece  of  ornament  in  high-relief. 

Stage  6a. — An  outline  of  the  figure  from  the  flat.  Any  complete  figure  from 
Morghen's  outlines,  or  from  any  of  the  selected  examples  in  the  Department's  list. 

Stage  10. — A  sheet  of  foliage  drawn  from  nature.  This  should  be  drawn 
with  delicacy  on  an  imperial  sheet  from  a  freely  growing  plant. 

Stage  13. — A  sheet  of  flowers  painted  from  the  flat.  From  a  good  example 
of  oil  or  water-color  painting,  or  from  nature.  , 

SECOND  GROUP, 

Candidates  for  the  certificate  of  the  Second  Group  must  already  have  obtained 
a  certificate  of  the  First  Group. 

Candidates  will  be  required  to  sketch,  in  color,  in  a  given  time,  a  group  placed 
by  the  examiners  for  that  purpose — using  any  medium  or  vehicle  which  the  exam- 
iners may  propose. 

To  answer  in  writing  a  paper  of  questions  on  the  elementary  principles  of  orna- 
ment, and  on  the  history  and  peculiarities  of  the  ornamentation  of  the  class  chosen 
for  illustration  in  the  drawings  sent  up  in  Stage  22d. 

To  answer  in  writing  a  paper  of  technical  questions  on  art,  and  on  the  general 
principles  and  execution  of  the  several  historic  schools;  and  a  paper  of  questions 
on  the  nomenclature  of  structural  botany,  and  its  application  to  ornament. 

For  the  Second  Group,  the  following  works,  seven  in  number,  are  required  to  be 
sent  up : 

Stage  13  or  14. — A  landscape  in  oil  from  nature,  or  from  some  approved 
example.     Should  be  of  half-imperial  size  or  thereabouts. 

Stage  12. — A  painting  of  ornament  in  monochrome  from  the  cast,  in  oil  or 
tempera.  Should  be  of  imperial  size  or  thereabouts,  and  should  be  painted  in  a 
manner  suitable  for  decorative  purposes. 

Stage  14. — A  study  of  flowers  painted  from  nature  in  water-color. 
Stage  15. — A  study  of  a  group  as  a  composition  of  color,  in  oil. 
Stage  22c. — A  sheet  of  at  least  two  studies  of  ornamental  arrangements  in 
color. 

Stage  22a. — A  sheet  of  studies  of  some  plant  or  plants  botanically  analyzed 
with  a  view  to  ornamental  details. 

Stage  22d. — A  set  of  studies  executed  during  the  period  of  training,  from 
some  one  class  of  objects  in  the  South  Kensington  Museum,  sufiiciently  exten- 
sive to  represent  the  history  of  the  class  selected.* 

*  It  is  intended  by  these  studies  to  test  the  knowledge  of  ornament  possessed  by  the  candi- 
date. He  should  therefore  send  a  sheet  or  sheets  of  the  most  characteristic  details  of  the  best 
periods  of  the  various  styles,  and  should  state  the  source  from  which  the  examples  are  derived. 


APPENDIX.  197 

I 

THIRD  GROUP. 

Candidates  for  the  certificate  of  the  Third  Group  must  already  have  obtained 
certificates  of  the  First  and  Second  groups. 

Candidates  will  be  required  to  answer,  in  writing,  a  paper  of  questions  on  the 
anatomy  of  the  human  figure. 

To  answer,  in  writing,  a  paper  on  the  history  of  ornament  of  the  various  periods 
and  styles,  and  a  paper  of  questions  on  the  elementary  principles  of  ornament,  and 
on  the  history  and  peculiarities  of  the  ornamentation  of  the  class  chosen  for  illus- 
tration in  the  drawings  sent  up  In  Stage  22c?. 

To  draw  in  a  given  time  the  bones  or  muscles,  within  the  outline  of  an  antique 
figure,  from  memory. 

And  to  make  a  time-study  from  the  living  model. 

[From  candidates  who  are,  or  have  been,  students  of  the  Royal  Academy,  and 
have  been  there  admitted  to  study  from  the  living  model,  this  last  exercise  will  not 
be  required.] 

For  the  Third  Group,  the  following  works,  seven  in  number,  are  required  to  be 
sent  up : 

Stage  8b. — An  antique  figure  shaded  from  the  cast,  in  chalk. 
Stage  8c. — A  study  in  chalk  from  the  living  model. 

Stage  9. — The  bones  and  muscles  placed  within  outlines  of  an  antique  figure. 
Stage  16. — A  painting  of  the  human  figure  from  a  picture  in  oil. 
Stage  l7a. — A  painting  of  the  nude  or  draped  figure  from  the  life,  in  oil. 
Stage  22d. — Varied  studies  of  historic  styles  of  ornament,  sufficiently  exten- 
sive to  represent  the  history  of  the  classes  selected,  sketched  from  works  in  the 
museum,  the  authority  in  each  case  being  appended.     If  they  are  from  colored 
ornament,  the  sketches  are  to  be  colored  also. 

FOURTH  GROUP. 

Candidates  for  the  certificate  of  the  Fourth  Group  must  already  have  obtained 
a  certificate  of  the  First  Group. 

They  will  be  required  to  answer,  in  writing,  a  paper  of  questions  on  the  element- 
ary principles  of  ornament,  and  on  the  history  and  peculiarities  of  the  ornamenta- 
tion of  the  class  chosen  for  illustration  in  the  drawings  sent  up  in  stage  22c?. 

To  answer  a  paper  of  technical  questions  on  the  application  of  ornament  to,  and 
its  modes  of  production  in,  various  plastic  materials. 

To  sketch  from  memory  elementary  details  of  ornament,  and  in  a  given  time  to 
model  a  piece  of  ornament,  in  low-relief,  from  a  print  or  drawing. 

For  the  Fourth  Group,  the  following  works,  six  in  number,  are  required  to  be 
sent  up : 

Stage  18a. — A  modeled  study  of  ornament  from  the  cast. 
Stage  18b. — A  modeled  study  of  ornament  from  a  drawing. 
Stage  20. — A  modeled  study  of  flowers  or  foliage  from  nature. 


198  APPENDIX. 

Stage  22. — A  modeled  study  of  any  one  of  the  sections  of  this  stage. 

Stage  22a. — A  sheet  of  studies  of  some  plant  or  plants,  botanically  analyzed 
with  a  view  to  display  their  ornamental  details,  drawn  or  modeled. 

Stage  22d. — A  set  of  studies  executed  during  the  period  of  training  from 
some  one  class  of  objects  in  the  South  Kensington  Museum,  sufficiently  exten- 
sive to  represent  the  history  of  the  class  selected. 

FIFTH  GROUP. 

Candidates  for  the  certificate  of  the  Fifth  Group  must  already  have  obtained  a 
certificate  of  the  First  Group. 

Candidates  will  be  required  to  answer,  in  writing,  a  paper  of  questions  on  the 
anatomy  of  the  human  frame. 

To  answer,  in  writing,  a  paper  on  the  history  of  ornament  of  the  various  periods 
and  styles. 

To  make  in  a  given  time  a  sketch,  in  low-relief,  from  a  print  or  drawing  of  an 
antique  figure;  and  to  give  the  anatomical  details  from  memory. 
To  make  a  time-study  from  the  living  model. 

[From  candidates  who  are,  or  have  been,  students  of  the  Royal  Academy,  and 
there  admitted  to  study  from  the  living  model,  this  last  exercise  will  not  be  re- 
quired.] 

For  the  Fifth  Group,  the  following  works,  six  in  number,  are  required  to  be 
sent  up : 

Stage  8. — An  antique  figure  shaded  from  the  cast. 
Stage  9. — An  anatomical  rendering  of  an  antique  figure,  modeled. 
Stage  9a. — A  drawing  of  the  skeleton  placed  within  the  outline  of  an  an- 
tique figure. 

Stage  19. — A  model  of  an  antique  figure  in  the  "  round,"  rendered  in  relief. 
Stage  20. — A  model  of  the  human  figure  from  nature,  nude  or  draped. 
Stage  22d. — Varied  studies  of  the  relief  ornament  of  historic  styles  sketched 
from  the  casts,  carvings,  metal-work,  etc.,  in  the  museum  of  the  Department, 
with  written  authorities  for  each,  and  sufficiently  extensive  to  represent  the  his- 
tory of  the  various  classes  selected. 

SIXTH  GROUP. 

Certificates  of  the  Sixth  Group  are  granted  on  proof  of  competency  to  teach, 
first,  domestic  architectural  drawing ;  and,  second,  the  special  application  of  orna- 
ment to  plastic  and  surface  decoration  for  various  fabrics,  manufactures,  and  archi- 
tectural purposes. 

Candidates  for  a  certificate  for  architectural  drawing  must  have  already  passed 
in  the  First  Group.  They  must  send  in,  together  with  their  application  for  permis- 
sion to  compete,  a  tinted  drawing,  from  measurement,  of  some  architectural  subject, 
and  a  design  with  plans  and  sections.  If  these  works  are  approved,  they  will  be 
required  to  answer  a  paper  on  the  details  of  architectural  construction,  and  on  the 


APPENDIX.  199 

characteristics  of  the  architectural  ornament  of  various  historic  styles  and  periods ; 
and  to  make  a  design  from  specifications  of  some  architectural  subject  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  examiner. 

Candidates  for  a  special  certificate  on  ornament  who  have  been  educated  in  the 
training-school  must  have  previously  taken  certificates  for  the  First,  Second,  and 
Third,  or  the  First,  Fourth,  and  Fifth  groups.  They  will  be  required  to  send  in,  for 
permission  to  compete,  two  original  works,  painted  or  modeled,  in  order  to  show 
their  technical  skill  as  well  as  their  power  of  designing;  also  a  monograph,  drawn 
up  by  themselves,  of  at  least  two  historic  styles,  illustrated  by  sketches  from  works 
or  drawings  in  the  museum.  They  will  be  examined  by  papers  on  the  elements, 
history,  and  application  of  ornament,  and  will  be  required  to  design  some  work  in 
the  presence  of  the  examiners. 

An  open  competition  for  admission  to  the  National  Training-school  for  teachers 
in  schools  of  art  is  offered  to  candidates  of  all  classes  under  the  age  of  seventeen 
years. 

Every  candidate  must  produce — 1.  A  certificate  that  he  has  satisfied  the  exam- 
iners of  the  Oxford  or  Cambridge  Local  Examinations,  the  Society  of  Arts  Exami- 
nations, or  he  must  hold  the  diploma  or  first-class  certificate  of  the  College  of  Pre- 
ceptors in  the  following  subjects:  English  grammar;  English  history;  arithmetic; 
writing ;  Latin,  or  a  modern  foreign  language.  2.  The  certificate  of  the  Science  and 
Art  Department  of  the  Second-grade  Art  in  free-hand  and  model  drawing. 

Candidates  must  submit  works  in  drawing,  painting,  or  designing,  to  show  the 
nature  and  extent  of  their  qualifications.  Those  whose  works  are  of  sufficient  merit 
will  be  admitted  to  undergo  a  competitive  examination  in  the  following  subjects: 
1.  Drawing,  from  the  cast,  of  ornament  or  of  the  figure ;  2.  Painting  in  color  from 
still-life,  or  from  the  life  (a  head) ;  3.  Drawing  from  memory,  or  designing ;  4.  Mod- 
eling of  ornament  or  the  figure  (this  may  be  alternative  with  subject  1). 

Allowances  for  maintenance  will  be  made  to  successful  candidates  at  the  rate  of 
thirty,  fifty-two,  sixty-five,  and  seventy-eight  pounds  a  year,  according  to  qualification. 

PROSPECTUS  OF  THE  NATIONAL  ART  TRAINING-SCHOOL,  SOUTH  KENSINGTON, 

FOR   1874. 

The  following  are  the  titles  of  the  officers  of  the  school :  Inspector-general  for 
Art,  Head-master,  Deputy  Head-master. 

There  are  teachers  for  mechanical  and  architectural  drawing ;  geometry  and  per- 
spective ;  painting ;  free-hand ;  drawing  of  ornament,  etc. ;  the  figure  and  anatomy ; 
ornamental  design  ;  and  modeling. 

The  female  classes  have  a  lady  superintendent. 

1.  The  courses  of  instruction  pursued  in  the  school  have  for  their  object  the 
systematic  training  of  teachers,  male  and  female,  in  the  practice  of  art,  and  in  the 
knowledge  of  its  scientific  principles,  with  the  view  of  qualifying  them  to  impart  to 
others  a  careful  art  education,  and  to  develop  its  application  to  the  common  uses  of 
life,  and  its  relation  to  the  requirements  of  trade  and  manufactures.    Special  courses 


200  -  APPENDIX. 

are  arranged  in  order  to  qualify  school-masters  of  parochial  and  other  schools  to 
teach  elementary  drawing  as  a  part  of  general  education  concurrently  with  writing. 

2.  The  instruction  comprehends  the  following  subjects :  free-hand,  architectural, 
and  mechanical  drawing ;  practical  geometry  and  perspective ;  painting  in  oil,  tem- 
pera, and  water-colors;  modeling,  molding,  and  casting.  The  classes  for  drawing, 
painting,  and  modeling  include  architectural  and  other  ornaments,  flowers,  objects 
of  still-life,  etc.,  the  figure  from  the  antique  and  the  life,  and  the  study  of  anatomy 
as  applicable  to  art. 

3.  The  annual  sessions,  each  lasting  five  months,  commence  on  the  1st  of  March 
and  the  1st  of  October,  and  end  on  the  last  day  of  July  and  the  last  day  of  Febru- 
ary, respectively.  Students  can  join  the  school  at  any  time,  the  tickets  running 
from  date  to  date.  The  months  of  August  and  September,  one  week  at  Christmas, 
and  one  week  at  Easter  or  Whitsuntide,  are  vacations.  The  classes  meet  every  day, 
except  Saturday/.     Hours  of  study — day,  10  to  3;  evening,  7  to  9. 

4.  In  connection  with  the  training-school,  and  open  to  the  public,  separate  class- 
es are  established  for  male  and  female  students ;  the  studies  comprising  drawing, 
painting,  and  modeling,  as  applied  to  ornament,  the  figure,  landscape,  and  still-life. 
Fees  for  classes  studying  for  five  whole  days,  including  evenings,  five  pounds  for 
five  months ;  for  three  whole  days,  including  evenings,  four  pounds  for  five  months ; 
for  the  half  day,  morning,  10  to  1,  or  afternoon,  1  to  3,  four  pounds  for  five 
months.  To  all  these  classes  there  is  an  entrance  fee  of  ten  shillings.  Evening 
classes :  male  school,  two  pounds  per  session ;  artisan  class,  ten  shillings  per  session, 
three  shillings  per  month ;  female  school,  one  pound  per  session,  three  evenings  a 
week. 

5.  No  students  can  be  admitted  to  these  classes  until  they  have  passed  an  exam- 
ination in  free-hand  drawing  of  the  Second  Grade.  Examinations  of  candidates  will 
be  held  weekly  at  the  commencement  of  each  session,  and  at  frequent  intervals 
throughout  the  year.  Students  can  not  join  the  school  for  a  shorter  term  than  five 
months,  but  those  students  who  have  already  paid  fees  for  five  months  may  remain 
until  the  end  of  the  scholastic  year  on  payment  of  a  propoilional  fee  for  each 
month  unexpired  up  to  the  31st  of  July  in  each  year. 

6.  Classes  for  school-masters,  school-mistresses,  and  pupil-teachers  of  elementary 
schools  meet-  on  two  evenings  in  each  week:  fee,  five  shillings  for  the  session. 
Teachers  in  private  schools  or  families  may  attend  the  day  classes  on  payment  of  a 
fee  of  one  pound  per  month. 

7.  The  morning  classes  for  practical  geometry  and  perspective  are  open  to  all 
students,  but  they  may  be  attended  independently  of  the  general  course,  on  pay- 
ment of  a  fee  of  two  pounds  per  session  for  those  classes. 

8.  Students  properly  qualified  have  full  access  to  the  collections  of  the  museum 
and  library,  either  for  consultation  or  copying,  as  well  as  to  all  the  school  lectures 
of  the  Department.  The  public  also  are  admitted  to  the  same  privileges  on  pay- 
ment of  small  admission  fees;  for  which  see  the  prospectuses  of  the  museum  and 
library. 


APPENDIX.  201 

9.  A  register  of  the  students'  attendance  is  kept,  and  may  be  consulted  by  par- 
ents and  guardians. 


STATEMENT  OF  EXPORTS  FROM,  AND  IMPORTS  INTO,  THE  UNITED 
STATES,  WITH  THE  RELATION  OF  EACH  TO  ARTICLES  INTO  THE 
MANUFACTURE   OF  WHICH  ART  ENTERS. 

In  view  of  what  has  been  said  in  the  preceding  chapters,  it  seems  appropriate  to 
present  statistics  of  the  imports  and  exports  of  articles  into  the  manufacture  of  which 
art  enters.  There  are  persons  who  may  not  be  able  to  see  the  force  of  reasoning 
presented  from  an  artistic  or  aesthetic  point  of  view.  There  is,  however,  a  pene- 
trating and  luminous  power  in  figures  which  reaches  the  comprehension  of  every 
man.  The  capitalist  and  the  laborer  can  alike  understand  the  simple  statement.  It 
is  much  better  for  both  one  and  the  other  that,  instead  of  sending  to  Europe  an  an- 
nual sum  of  over  131,000,000  of  dollars,  we  should  keep  the  money  at  home.  This 
economy  can  be  practiced  by  manufacturing  articles  for  which  that  amount  is  paid 
within  our  own  borders,  and  the  fact  can  not  too  often  be  stated,  that  in  order  to 
be  able  to  manufacture  these  articles  we  must  have  general  art  education. 

The  following  statistics  are  taken  from  the  annual  report  of  the  chief  of  the 
Bureau  of  Statistics,  Commerce,  and  Navigation  of  the  Treasury  Department  of  the 
United  States  for  the  year  1874.  The  report  includes  the  fiscal  year  ending  in 
June,  1874: 

Grand  total  of  exports $704,463,120 

Grand  total  of  imports 595,861,248 

Excess  of  exports $108,601,872 

Notwithstanding  this  very  great  difference  between  the  total  of  all  the  exports 
and  imports,  it  will  be  seen  by  the  following  tables  that  in  the  manufacture  of 
those  articles  into  which  art  enters  our  imports  were  $158,786,319,  and  our  ex- 
ports $27,505,049 ;  showing  an  excess  of  imports  of  the  value  of  $131,261,270. 

This  enormous  sum  of  money  is  paid  Europe  because,  in  the  main,  she  has  bet- 
ter taste  and  more  skilled  mechanics  than  we.  From  the  point  of  view  of  political 
economy,  it  may  not  matter  who  makes  these  articles  so  long  as  there  is  a  fair  ex- 
change of  commodities.  But  every  consideration  of  culture,  refinement,  and  all  of 
that  moral  power  which  comes  from  education,  require  us  to  instruct  our  people  so 
that  these  things  shall  be  manufactured  within  the  United  States. 

In  the  tables  of  exports  and  imports  it  will  be  observed  that  the  list  of  exports 
includes  a  number  of  articles  representing  large  amounts  of  money,  which  are  of  a 
rough,  coarse  character,  and  into  which  the  art  element  is  but  slightly  concerned. 
These  articles  are  freight  -  cars,  agricultural  implements,  coarse  cotton  prints,  bulky 
machinery,  sewing-machines,  etc.  In  nearly  all  the  imported  articles  mentioned  in 
these  tables,  the  advantage  of  a  knowledge  of  art  is  directly  and  pointedly  shown. 
Under  the  general  titles,  such  as  jewelry,  fancy  goods,  china-ware,  engravings,  silk, 


202 


APPENDIX. 


cotton,  and  linen  manufactures,  and  so  on,  a  large  number  of  articles  are  included 
which  are  not  manufactured  in  the  United  States. 

It  is  an  interesting  fact  in  these  tables  that,  while  the  products  of  art  industry- 
form  26*7  per  cent,  of  the  grand  total  of  imports,  they  are  only  3'91  per  cent,  of 
the  grand  total  of  exports. 


ARTICLES  IMPORTED   INTO,   AND   EXPORTED   FROM,  THE  UNITED  STATES   DURING  THE 

YEAR  ENDING  JUNE  30th,  1874. 


Agricultural  implements 

Books 

Bells  and  bronze  metal 

Brass,  and  manufactures  of 

Buttons 

Billiard-tables  and  apparatus 

Carriages,  carts,  and  parts  of 

Cars,  railroad,  passenger,  and  freight . 

Clocks,  and  parts  of , 

Combs 


Copper,  manufactures  of 

Clothing 

Cotton,  manufactures  of 

Earthen,  stone,  and  china  ware 

Fancy  articles 

Flax  manufactures 

Gax-fixtures  and  chandeliers 

Glass,  manufactures  of 

Hemp,  manufactures  of 

Household  goods 

Hair,  manufactures  of 

Hats,  caps,  and  bonnets 

India-rubber,  manufactures  of 

Iron  and  steel,  manufactures  of 

Jewelry 

Lamps 

Lead,  manufactures  of 

Leather,  manufactures  of 

Mathematical,  philosophical,  and  optical  instruments .... 

Musical  instruments 

Paintings,  chromo-lithographs,  photographs,  and  statuary. 

Paper-hangings,  papier-mache,  etc 

Plated  ware 

Printing-presses  and  type 

Scales 

Sewing-machines 

Silk,  manufactures  of 

Tin,  manufactures  of 

Trunks 

Umbrellas 

Watches 

Wood,  manufactures  of 

Wearing  apparel 

Wool,  manufactures  of 

Total  imports 

Total  exports 


Excess  of  imports . 


Imports. 


$2,853,285 

355,062 
2,122,037 


163,656 
3,943,628 

24,772,898 
4,882,355 
4,518,987 

17,472,753 

1,710,66,'^ 
114,184 
887,874 

1,229,400 

803,830 

10,222,116 

849,130 

36,401 
4,133,058 

"  870,348 
1,169,878 
1,230,688 


23,996,782 
71,779 


2,374,294 
1,269,857 

46,732,032 


U  58,786,319 
27,525,049 


$131,261,270 


Exports. 


^2,089,753 

584,930 

8,433 

503,531 

48,799 

541,844 

1,151,898 

1,007,507 

7,535 

233,301 

2,252,.533 

59,494 

302,548 

38,817 
448,760 
861,746 

33,257 

200,464 

126,280 

8,753,430 

'  168,231 
308,044 
613,185 
64,433 
550,327 
161,503 

55,127 

163,839 

139,607 

1,594,296 

62,973 

171,383 

503 

9,470 

8,655,177 

427,992 

124,099 


$27,525,049 


Percentage  of  imports  into  which  art  enters 26  •  7  per  cent. 

"         exports        "  "  3-9       " 


APPENDIX.  203 

LIST  OF  BOOKS  AND  ESSAYS  USED  IN  THE  PREPARATION  OF  THIS 

WORK. 

J.  C.  Maxwell,  "Experiments  on  Color  as  perceived  by  the  Eye."  Transac- 
tions of  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh,  Part  IL,  1854-'55. 

George  Field.     Several  works  by  this  author. 

Owen  Jones.     Several  works  by  this  author. 

A.  Racinet,  "Polychromatic  Ornament."     London,  1873. 

Dr.  WiLHELM  Von  Bezold,  "  The  Theory  of  Color  in  its  Relation  to  Art  and 
Industry."     Translated  by  S.  R.  Koehler.     Boston,  1876. 

Gazette  des  Beaux  Arts.  Paris.  Obligations  are  especially  acknowledged  for  a 
number  of  the  illustrations  in  this  work,  which  were  furnished  directly  from  the 
office  of  that  publication. 

Harper  s  Magazine  and  Harpers  Weekly.     New  York. 

"  Art  Directory,"  South  Kensington  School.     London. 

J.  A.  G.  Davioud,  "L'Art  et  I'lndustrie."     Paris,  1874. 

Amable  Tronquoy,  "  Dessin  Geometrique,"  etc,     Paris. 

C.  B.  Stetson,  "Technical  Education."     Boston,  1874. 

Lord  Stanley's  circular  on  technical  and  primary  education  to  Her  Majesty's 
representatives  abroad,  with  their  replies :  "Blue-book."     London,  1868. 

"Official  Catalogue,  Japanese  Section,  International  Centennial  Exposition." 
Philadelphia,  1876. 

"  Enseignement  des  Arts  du  Dessin.  Rapports  des  Delegues  charges  par  le 
Gouvernement  de  I'Instruction  des  Academies  des  Beaux  Arts,  etc.,  du  Royaume 
de  Belgique."     Bruxelles,  1874. 

E.  S.  Dallas,  "  The  Gay  Science."     London. 

W.  H.  Pater,  "Studies  in  the  History  of  the  Renaissance."     London,  1873. 

Walter  Smith,  "Art  Education."     Boston,  1872. 

Chronique  des  Arts.     Several  numbers.     Paris. 

Du  Sommerard,  "  Les  Arts  au  Moyen  Age."     Paris,  1838. 

Viollet  le  Due,  "  Report  on  the  Sevres  Manufactory."     Paris. 

Winckelmann,  "The  History  of  Ancient  Art."  Translated  by  G.  Henry 
Lodge,  M.D.     1872. 

W.  E.  Griffis,  "  The  Mikado's  Empire."     New  York,  1876. 


INDEX. 


Academies  of  Fine  Arts  in  Italy :  at  Arezzo,  Bas- 
sano,  110;  at  Bologna,  Brescia,  Carrara,  Flor- 
ence, Lucca,  Massa,  Milan,  Modena,  Naples, 
Parma,  Reggio  d'  Emilia,  Rome,  Turin,  Venice, 
Bergamo,  Genoa,  Lovera,  Messina,  Palermo,  Pe- 
rugia, Piacenza,  Pisa,  Ravenna,  Sienna,  Urbino, 
115. 

Academy  of  Design,  New  York,  151. 

Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  Philadelphia,  20. 

Academy  of  Plastic  Arts,  Vienna,  108. 

Achenbach,  Andreas,  87,  88. 

Achenbach,  Oswald,  87. 

Agriculture,  school  of,  in  Nuremberg,  103. 

Alava,  Spain,  art  society  at,  119. 

Albert  Diirer,  61. 

Aleppo,  thirteenth  cebtury  damaskeen,  172. 

Almeria,  Spain,  art  society  at,  119. 

Alphonse  d'Este,  Duke  of  Ferrara,  56. 

American  Institute  of  Architects,  159. 

Amiens,  Cathedrial,  61. 

Amigos  del  Pais :  educational  societies  in  Spain, 
118,119. 

Andre  de  Pisa,  sculptor,  57. 

Andre,  Edouard,  President  of  the  Union  Centrale, 
80,  125. 

Apelles,  Greek  painter,  155. 

Archer,  Professor,  164. 

Architecture,  and  the  occupations  which  relate  to 
it,  145. 

Architecture,  laws  of,  39 ;  musical  instruments, 
36 ;  steamboat,  33 ;  superior  instruction  ap- 
plied to  industry,  149. 

Arezzo,  Italy,  Academy  of  Letters,  Science,  and 
Art,  110. 

Arita,  village  in  Japan :  its  pottery,  184. 

Arrevezza,  Spain,  art  society  at,  119. 

Arrivisa,  Spain,  art  society  at,  119. 

Art,  application  of,  to  industry,  29. 


Art  of  Design,  in  the  Middle  Ages,  62  ;  principles 
which  control  it,  40 ;  Pereian,  Arabian,  Moor- 
ish, and  Japanese,  the  best  for  decoration,  40. 

Art,  unity  of,  17. 

Art  education  in  Austria,  107-109 ;  in  Bavaria, 
99 ;  in  Belgium,  23,  24,  72,  92-98  ;  in  France, 
no  oflBcial  programme  of,  70 ;  in  Great  Britain, 
23,  65-67 ;  in  Prussia,  99  ;  in  Spain,  117-119  ; 
in  Sweden  and  Northern  Europe,  117 ;  in  Switz- 
erland, 111,  112  ;  in  the  United  States,  19,  126, 
127;  in  Massachusetts,  127;  success  of  Pro- 
fessor Smith's  system  :  report  of  Boston  School 
Board  for  1876, 128  ;  in  Cincinnati,  129 ;  Wom- 
an's Art  School,  Cooper  Institute  —  Philadel- 
phia School  of  Design  for  Women — Philadel- 
phia Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  129  ;  the  National 
Academy  of  Design,  New  York — Lowell  Free 
School  of  Industrial  Design — Cooper  Institute 
Free  Night-school  of  Science  and  Art — Worces- 
ter County  Free  Institute,  Massachusetts  — 
School  of  Design,  Cincinnati  University,  130. 

Art  education  needful  for  trades,  25 ;  tables  show- 
ing the  number  of  persons  instructed  in,  in 
Great  Britain  in  1873,  69  ;  plan  of,  in  the  Ecole 
des  Beaux  Arts,  73,  74 ;  best  method  for,  in 
the  United  States,  132, 133;  general  plan  of, 
135-141. 

"Art  Foliage,"  Colling's,  145. 

Artillery  Museum  in  Paris :  antique  armor,  50. 

Associazione  Industriale  Italiana,  Milan,  116. 

Athenaeum,  Boston,  151. 

Austria,  art  and  industrial  schools  in,  107. 

Austria,  at  Centennial  Exposition,  168, 169. 

B. 

Balearic  Islands  Art  Society,  119. 
Barbedienne,  Paris,  166-168. 
Barbedienne  cloisonne,  185. 
Barbizet  fils,  Paris,  167. 


206 


INDEX.  . 


Barcelona  Art  Society,  school  for  engineers,  1 1 9. 

Basil  the  Macedonian:  enameling  executed  dur- 
ing his  period,  50. 

Bassano,  Italy,  schools  of  design  at,  114,  115. 

Bavaria,  art  education  in,  101,  102;  industrial 
schools  in,  105. 

Becker,  Carl,  88. 

Belgium,  its  method  of  art  education,  133  ;  at  the 
United  States  Centennial  Exposition,  169. 

Benvenuto  Cellini,  150. 

Bergamo,  Italy,  academy  of  fine  arts  at,  115. 

Bezold,  Wilhelm  Von,  author  of  work  on  color, 
18;  his  "Theory  of  Color"  a  text-book,  137. 

Blanc,  Charles,  144  ;  "  Grammar  of  Painting"  by, 
143-146. 

Blodgett,  W.  T.,  88. 

Bonheur,  August,  88. 

Bonnat,  M.  Louis-Joseph-Florentin,  74. 

Borgia,  Lucretia,  56. 

Boston  Athenaeum,  20. 

Boullin,  Arnould,  61. 

Bourganeuf,  treasure  of,  53. 

Brescia,  Italy,  schools  of  design  at,  114, 115. 

Breton,  M.  Jules-Adolphe,  29,  74,  88. 

Brewster,  Sir  David,  18. 

Brion,  Gustavo,  88. 

Brisinghella,  Italy,  school  of  design,  224. 

Brongniart,  A.,  145. 

Bronzes,  of  the  Middle  Ages,  57  ;  Japanese,  185. 

Bryant  vase,  160. 

Bureau  of  Art  and  Science,  part  of  the  English 
Government,  65. 

Burgos,  Spain,  art  society  at,  119. 

Byzantine  period,  art  of  enameling   during  the, 

50. 

C. 

Cabanel,  M.  Alexandre,  74,  88. 

Cabinet  des  Antiques  de  la  Bibliothfeque  Royale, 
curiosities  of,  49. 

Cadiz,  Spain,  art  society  of,  119. 

Calistrates  built  the  Parthenon,  33. 

Canned,  M.,  delegated  to  report  on  art  education 
in  Belgium,  94,  95,  98. 

Canterbury  Cathedral,  33. 

Carrara,  Italy,  academy  of  fine  arts  of,  115. 

Carraud,  M.,  his  collection,  64. 

Carved  work,  representing  the  beheading  of  St. 
John,  61. 

Carving  in  wood,  at  Cincinnati,  34-35 ;  by  monks 
of  Clairvaux,  60 ;  during  the  Middle  Ages,  58, 
59 ;  school  of,  at  Florence,  113;  in  Switzerland, 
169, 170;  at  United  States  Centennial  Exposi- 
tion, 161. 


Castanzaro,  Italy,  school  of  design  at,  114. 

Castellani,  Torquato,  his  collection,  171. 

Catherine  de  Medicis,  86. 

Cellini,  Benvenuto,  opinion  of  the  art  of  repousse, 
48  ;  armor  attributed  to,  49. 

Centennial  Exposition,  United  States,  118  ;  its  in- 
fluence upon  art  education,  155  ;  reports  of 
judges  of,  89. 

Central  School  of  Arts  and  Trades  in  France,  23. 

Ceramic  art,  works  on,  of  Brongniart,  Jacque- 
mart,  and  Marryat,  145. 

Cesnola,  Di,  his  discoveries  at  Cyprus,  148. 

Chabert,  work  of,  145. 

Chamber  of  Commerce  of  Great  Britain,  certain 
questions  as  to  technical  education  asked  of 
the,  65. 

Chateau,  Th.,  work  of,  145. 

Chemnitz,  in  Prussia,  schools  in,  23-33. 

Cherpentier,  maker  of  Oiron  faience,  55. 

Chesman,  T.,  official  examiner,  his  report  to  Roy- 
al Committee,  69. 

Cheunevrieres,  Marquis  De,  the  address  of,  to  Na- 
tional School  of  Design,  73 ;  urges  public  art 
education,  141. 

Chevreul  on  principles  of  harmony,  143. 

Chicago,  exposition  at,  87. 

China,  at  the  United  States  Centennial  Exposi- 
tion, 176. 

Cincinnati,  course  of  common  -  school  instruction 
in,  121 ;  drawing  in  public  schools  of,  129 ;  ex- 
positions, 87,  88 ;  school  of  design  at,  151 ;  Uni- 
versity of,  124, 125  ;  wood-carving  at,  34-85. 

Claghorn,  James  L.,  26,  88. 

Clairvaux,  monks  of,  60,  61. 

Classes  to  be  instructed  in  art  education,  22. 

Cleopatra,  death  of,  in  plaque,  50. 

Codogno,  Italy,  school  of  design  of,  1 14. 

Color,  Theory  of,  1 8. 

Color,  experiments  in,  144. 

Columbia  College,  125. 

Common-school  education,  121. 

Congress  of  Art  at  Paris  in  1869,70;  of  indus- 
trial  art  at  Brussels  in  1868, 92. 

Constantine  Porphyrogenitus  writes  on  enamel- 
ing, 50. 

Cooper  Institute,  28. 

Cooper,  Peter,  27. 

Co-operation  in  manufactures,  26. 

Corcoran  Art  Gallery  at  Washington,  20. 

Cornell  University,  124,  125. 

Courtois,  J.,  enameler  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
54. 

Couture,  T.,  painter,  88. 


INDEX. 


207 


D. 

Damascus,  art  of  damaskeen  in,  in  the  eight- 
eenth century,  172. 

Damaskeen,  art  of,  in  Spain,  1T2. 

Damaskeen,  rare  casket  of,  now  lost,  47. 

Daniell,  A.  R.,  &  Son,  London,  164. 

Dannon,  M.,  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Union 
Centrale,  76. 

David,  Enieric,  "  History  of  Antique  Sculpture  " 
by,  76, 143. 

Davidson  &  Dobson,  works  on  architecture  by, 
145. 

Debruge,  M.,  collector  of  art  objects,  54. 

Decamps,  Alexandre-Gabriel,  73,  88. 

Delacroix,  Ferdinand- Victor-Eugene,  73. 

Delaroche,  Paul,  73. 

Demarest,  A.,  works  on  architecture  by,  145. 

Denmark  at  the  Centennial  Exposition,  175. 

Diderot,  Denis,  criticism  upon  Falconnet's  clock 
by,  42. 

Dobson,  works  on  architecture  by,  145. 

Donadio,  Count  of,  118. 

Donatello,  sculptor,  57. 

Doulton  &  Co.,  England,  164. 

Drawing,  first  step  in,  in  art  education  in  the 
United  States,  17;  in  public  schools,  time  al- 
lotted for,  142 ;  taught  in  the  public  schools  in 
France,  71 ;  in  Great  Britain,  69. 

Dresden  pottery,  168. 

E. 

Eastlake  on  Household  Architecture,  35. 

Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts,  73,  84,  141 ;  annual  ex- 
hibits of,  75 ;  managed  by  Government,  70 ; 
professors  of,  74. 

Ecoles  Industrielles,  Belgium,  23. 

Ecole  Speciale  de  la  Suisse  Fran9aise  pour  I'ln- 
dustrie,  les  Travaux  Publics,  et  les  Construc- 
tions Civiles,  112. 

Ecoles  de  Tissage  at  Trogen,  142. 

Egypt,  industrial  art  of,  at  the  United  States 
Centennial  Exposition,  174. 

Egyptians,  art  of  repousse  among,  48. 

Elkington  &  Co.,  163-168 ;  cloisonne  of,  165. 

Enamel,  early  history  of,  50 ;  at  Limoges  in  ninth 
century,  53  ;  of  Bernard  Palissy,  54. 

"  Encyclopedia  of  Architecture,"  by  Gwilt,  145. 

"  Encyclopedia  of  Ornament,"  by  Shaw,  144. 

Escosura,  Ignace  de  Leon,  L,  88. 

Exposition  at  Cincinnati,  87-88 ;  at  Chicago,  87 ; 
Centennial,  at  Philadelphia;  at  London,  1851, 
at  Paris,  1868;  of  Fine  Arts,  Union  Centrale, 
1874,  82-87. 


P. 

Faenza,  Italy,  school  of  design  of,  114. 

Faience  Oiron,  or  Henri  Deux,  55. 

Falconnet,  design  for  a  clock  by,  42. 

Fasa-ma,  Japan,  182. 

Ferrara,  dukes  of,  56. 

Fleury,  Robert,  73. 

Florence,  school  of  wood-carving  at,  113;  Acad- 
emy  of  Fine  Arts  at,  115;  Museo  Nazionale 
of,  116. 

Florentine  cabinet,  57. 

"  Forged  Iron- work  of  the  Middle  Ages  and  Re- 
naissance," by  Hefner  Atheneck,  145. 

"  Fragments  of  Architecture,"  by  Chabert,  145. 

France,  history  of  art  education  in,  70 ;  no  offi- 
cial programme  of  art  instruction  in,  70 ;  rep- 
resented at  the  Centennial  Exposition,  166- 
168. 

France,  public  schools  of,  drawing  taught  in  all, 
72. 

Francis  I.,  armor  of,  in  repoussS,  48, 49 ;  costumes 
of,  85  ;  re-established  works  of  Limoges,  53. 

Fran9ois  vase,  in  the  Campagna  collection  of 
Mus6e  Napoleon,  39. 

Fry,  Henry  and  William,  designers  and  wood- 
carvers,  in  Cincinnati,  34. 


Gazette  des  Beaux  Arts,  63. 

Genoa,  Italy,  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in,  115. 

Geoffroi  of  Limousin,  53. 

Geometry,  the  basis  of  art  study,  133. 

Gerard,  M.,  Director  of  Public  Schools  in  France, 
73. 

Gerome,  Jean  Leon,  74. 

Gewerbe  Academy,  in  Berlin,  99 ;  Museum,  Ba- 
varia, 168. 

Ghiberti,  sculptor,  57,  150. 

Gibson,  H.  E.,  88. 

Glasgow  Museum,  164. 

Gleyre,  Gabriel  Charles,  73. 

Godwin,  Parke,  88. 

Gorham  Company,  the,  160. 

Goujon,  Jean,  carved  work  by,  at  Rouen,  61. 

"  Grammar  of  Ornament,"  by  Owen  Jones,  144, 
145. 

"  Grammar  of  Painting,"  by  Charles  Blanc,  144, 
145. 

Granada,  Spain,  art  society  in,  119. 

Grandmont,  altar  of,  53. 

Great  Britain,  plan  of  art  education  in,  65-69 ; 
method  of  art  study  in,  133 ;  Centennial  Ex- 
position at,  162-165. 


208 


INDEX. 


Greece,  art  of  repousse  in,  48 ;  artists  from,  vis- 
ited Limoges  in  the  ninth  century,  53. 

Griffis,  "The  Mikado's  Empire  "  by,  182, 187. 

Gruner,  Louis,  144,  145. 

Gude,  Hans,  painter,  87. 

Guichard,  M.,  President  and  Managing  Director 
of  the  Union  Centrale,  76,  78,  82. 

Guilmart,  145  ;  "  History  of  Ornament "  by,  146. 

Gwilt,  "  Architecture  "  by,  145. 

H. 

Hangest,  Madame  de,  Oiron  faience  made  by,  55. 

Harvard  University,  124, 125. 

Haviland  &  Co.,  Limoges,  France,  167. 

Heilrath  &  Co.,  Limoges,  France,  87. 

Helmholtz,  "  Theory  of  Color  "  by,  18, 19. 

Hendricks,  "System  of  Drawing  "  by,  71. 

Henri  II.  of  France,  85  ;  ware,  history  of,  55. 

Henry  II.  of  England,  85. 

Herzog,  H.,  painter,  87. 

Hildesheim,  treasures  of,  62. 

"  History  of  the  Industrial  Arts,  from  the  Mid- 
dle Ages  to  the  Epoch  of  the  Renaissance,"  by 
Jules  Labarte,  145. 

"  History  of  Ornament,"  by  Guilmart,  145, 

Hizen,  province  of,  in  Japan,  184. 

Hoang-Ti,  Emperor  of  China,  179. 

Hoe,  Colonel  Robert  M.,  28. 

Hoff,  Carl,  88. 

Hotel  de  Cluny,  47,  49,  56,  59,  61. 

House  of  Commons,  England,  Report  of,  on  Tech- 
nical Education,  March  25th,  1868,  66. 

Hubner,  Carl,  painter,  87. 

Hueria,  Spain,  art  society  in,  119. 

Hugues  I.,  Count  of  Champagne,  60. 

L 

Ictinus,  builder  of  the  Parthenon,  33. 

Idar,  Germany,  168. 

Igano-Musa,  province  of,  in  Japan,  184. 

Industrial  art,  secret  of  the  success  of,  187;  in- 
feriority of,  in  the  United  States,  158,  159  ;  of 
the  nineteenth  century  compared  to  the  Mid- 
dle Ages,  163. 

Industrial  engineers,  school  for,  in  Barcelona, 
Spain,  119. 

Industrial  schools,  table  of,  in  Germany,  100 ;  in 
Bavaria,  105 ;  in  Austria,  107. 

Industry,  influence  of,  on  art,  43,  44. 

Ingres,  Jean-Dominique-Augustin,  73. 

Isabel  of  Bavaria,  84. 

Ise,  province  of,  in  Japan,  1 84. 

Italy,  art  education  in,  113;  at  Centennial  Expo- 


sition, 170-172;  industrial  schools  in,  113- 
116. 

J. 

Jacquemart,  A.,  181, 182. 

Jacquemart,  Jules,  85,  145. 

Japan,  at  Centennial  Exposition,  176,  179,  180, 

181 ;  porcelain  and  faience  of,  182, 183 ;  bronze 

and  cloisonne  of,  185. 
Johnstone,  J.  Taylor,  88. 
Jones,  Owen,  144,  145. 
Josephine,  Empress,  86. 


Kaga,  province  of,  in  Japan,  184. 

Kagoshima,  city  of,  in  Japan,  184. 

Kervyn  de  Lettenhove,  Minister  of  the  Interior 

for  Belgium,  letter  of,  on  art  education,  94. 
King,  H.,  144. 

Kioto,  a  city  in  Japan,  183, 185. 
Knaus,  L.,  painter,  29,  87,  88. 
Koehler,  S.  R.,  144. 
Koran,  human  figure  in  art  forbidden  by  the,  40. 


Labarte,  Jules,  54, 145. 

Ladeul,  maker  of  Helicon  vase,  163. 

Lajolais,  M.  de,  92. 

Lausanne,  industrial  school  at,  112. 

Le  Cointe,  Paris,  168. 

Lenormant,  Fran9ois,  63. 

Leonard,  enamel  painter,  sixteenth  century,  53. 

Leonardo  da  Vinci,  53. 

Leopold  I.  of  Austria,  Academy  of  Plastic  Arts 

founded  by,  108. 
Leopold,  King  of  Belgium,  93. 
Lerida,  Spain,  art  society  at,  119. 
Lessing,  Carl  Frederick,  87,  88. 
Levasseur,  school  of,  in  Paris,  prize  awarded  to, 

for  superior  instruction,  71,  84. 
Lick,  James,  of  San  Francisco,  28. 
Limoges,  enameling  of,  in  the  ninth  century,  53, 

55;  pottery  of,  167. 
Limousin,  abbeys  of,  53. 
Longworth,  Joseph,  28. 
Loretta,  Italy,  57. 

Louis  XIV.,  the  arts  in  the  reign  of,  17. 
Louis  XV.,  59. 
Louis  XVIII.,  87. 
Louvre,  Paris,  Gallery  of  the,  161. 
Lovera,  Italy,  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in,  115. 
Lowell,  Massachusetts,  industrial  school  of  design 

at,  139. 


INDEX. 


209 


Lucca,  Italy,  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in,  115. 
Lucca  della  Robbia,  57. 

M. 

Madrid,  Spain,  art  schools  and  societies  in,  119. 

Makart,  Hans,  168. 

Malaga,  Spain,  art  society  in,  119. 

Marco  Polo,  adventures  of,  in  China,  177. 

Marcotte,  New  York,  161. 

Maria  Louise  de  Gonzague,  Queen  of  Holland,  59. 

Marryat,  145. 

Massa,  Italy,  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in,  115. 

Massachusetts,  system  of  art  education  in,  1 27, 1 28. 

Maxwell,  J.  E.,  18, 144. 

Mayence,  Cathedral  of,  51. 

Mayeure,  a  founder  of  the  Union  Centrale,  76. 

Meissonier,  Jean  Louis  Ernest,  29, 74,  88. 

Mercade,  B.,  Spanish  painter,  171. 

Merimee,  Prosper,  report  of,  upon  the  Universal 
Expositions  of  1851  and  1855,  77. 

Merle,  Hugues,  88. 

Metropolitan  Museum,  New  York,  20, 28. 

Meurice,  Froment,  Paris,  166. 

Michigan,  University  of,  124. 

Milan,  Italy,  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in,  115. 

Millet,  Jean  Fran9ois,  73. 

Mino,  province  of,  in  Japan,  184. 

Minton,  Hollins,  &  Co.,  England,  164, 165, 185. 

Modena,  Italy,  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in,  115. 

Mohammed,  drawing  the  human  figure  prohibited 
by,  40. 

"  Moku -me,"  Japanese  metal -work  called,  185, 
186. 

Monochromatic  ornament,  by  M.  A.  Racinet,  144. 

Montmorency,  Henri  de,  86. 

Morocco,  exhibit  of,  in  the  Centennial  Exposi- 
tion, 174. 

Miiller,  Charles  Louis,  29,  88. 

Murano,  Italy,  School  of  Design  in,  114. 

Murillo,  171. 

Museo  d'Arte  applicata  all'  Industria,  Rome,  116. 

Museo  Nazionale,  Florence,  116. 

Museo  Industriale  ItaUano,  Turin,  116. 

Museum  of  Berlin,  62. 

Museum,  Boston,  28. 

Museum,  Metropolitan,  New  York,  20,  28. 

Museum,  Pennsylvania,  20. 

Music-hall,  Boston,  organ-case  in,  36. 

N. 
Naples,  Italy,  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  at,  115. 
National  Academy  of  Design  in  New  York,  20,  28, 
130. 


National  School  for  Training  Art  Masters,  South 

Kensington,  England,  67. 
National  School  of  Design  and  Mathematics  of 

France,  prizes  awarded  to,  73. 
New  York  National  Academy  of  Design,  20, 28. 
New  York,  State  of,  drawing  in  public  schools  of, 

129. 
Nicias,  Greek  painter,  182. 
Nomi  no  Tsukun6,  Japan,  182. 
Notre  Dame  College,  124. 
Novgorod,  Russia,  basilica  of,  57. 
Nuremberg  schools,  101-105  ;  toys  of,  169. 

0. 

Oberstein,  Germany,  168. 

Objects  of  the  toilet  during  the  Middle  Ages, 
55. 

O'Hara,  Charles  G.,  88. 

Oiron  faience,  55 ;  Chateau  of  Oiron,  55 ;  repro- 
ductions of,  164. 

Organ,  architecture  of,  36. 

Osseolo,  Doge  of  Venice,  50. 

Owari,  province  of,  in  Japan,  pottery  of,  184. 

P. 

Painting,  course  of  instruction  in,  143 ;  applica- 
tion to  industrial  pursuits,  147, 148. 

Palissy,  Bernard,  54,  150;  ware,  reproductions  of, 
167. 

Palermo,  Italy,  College  of  Fine  Arts  at,  115. 

Parma,  Italy,  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  at,  115. 

Pavia,  Italy,  School  of  Design  at,  114. 

Paxton,  Sir  Joseph,  35. 

Penitents  of  Limoges,  85. 

Pennsylvania  Museum,  of  Philadelphia,  20. 

Perugia,  Italy,  College  of  Fine  Arts  at,  115. 

Piano,  architecture  of,  36. 

Piacenza,  Italy,  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  at,  115. 

Pietrasanta,  Italy,  School  of  Design  at,  114. 

Pirmez,  Minister  of  Interior  for  Belgium  in  1867, 
93. 

Pisa,  Italy,  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  at,  115. 

Poll  brothers,  Venice,  bell-makers,  171. 

Polidore  of  Carravaggio,  artist,  54. 

Polytechnic  Institute,  Nuremberg,  103. 

Pompeii,  38. 

Pondicherry,  86. 

Porcelain  first  introduced  into  Europe,  178. 

Portales,  Count  de,  55. 

Pottery,  an  article  of  use  and  beauty,  37 ;  manu- 
facture of,  in  United  States,  39,  164;  modern 
English,  164 ;  Japanese,  178-185. 

Potteries  of  England,  Report  of,  in  1868,  66. 


14 


210 


INDEX. 


"  Principles  of  Decorative  Design,"  by  C.  Dresser, 

144. 
Prussia,  art  education  in,  99-101. 
Phoenicians,  art  of  repousse,  48. 
Phamphilus,  Greeli  painter,  155. 
Phidias,  33,  150. 
Philadelphia,  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  20,  28 ;  School 

of  Design  and  Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  129. 
Philostrate,  writer  of  fourth  century,  notices  art 

of  enameling,  50. 

B. 

Racinet,  M.  A.,  144-146. 

Rangabe,  Michael,  57. 

Raphael,  44,  150. 

Ravenna,  Italy,  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in,  115. 

Raymond,  Pierre,  54. 

Regency,  shoes  worn  in  France  during  the,  86. 

Reggio  d'Erailia,  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in,  115. 

Rembrandt,  44. 

Renaissance,  industrial  art  during  the,  48,  53. 

Repousse,  antique  art  in,  48. 

Richelieu,  Cardinal,  86. 

Roberts,  Marshall  0.,  88. 

Rochester,  University  of,  124. 

Roger  II.,  84. 

Rogers,  Fairman,  88. 

Rogers,  Robert,  designer  and  wood -carver,  Cin- 
cinnati, 35. 

Romans,  art  of  repousse  practiced  by  the,  48. 

Rome,  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in,  115. 

Rousseau,  Theodore,  73. 

Royal  Academy  of  Design,  London,  20. 

Royal  Industrial  School,  Nuremberg,  102. 

Royal  School  of  Art,  Nuremberg,  101. 

Rumbold,  letter  from,  on  technical  education  in 
Switzerland,  111,  112. 

Russia,  exhibit  of,  at  the  Centennial  E.xposition, 
74. 

S. 

Salamanca,  Spain,  art  society  in,  119. 

Sansovino,  Jacopo,  sculptor,  57,  58. 

Santa  Maria  de  Fiore,  church  of,  in  Florence,  57. 

Santandar,  Spain,  art  society  in,  119. 

SassikofF,  Russian  sculptor,  175. 

Satsuma,  Japanese  pottery  of,  183-185. 

Schools  of  art  applied  to  industry  and  of  design 

in  Vienna,  107,  109,  110. 
School  of  art  applied  to  industry,  Venice,  114. 
Schools  of  art  and  manufacture  in  Italy,  114  ;  at 

Savona,  113;  at  Sesto  Florentine,  114. 
Schools  of  Design:  in  Belgium,  97;  of  Cincin- 


nati University,  28,  35,  151,  161 ;  in  Italy — at 
Bassano,  Brescia,  Brisinghella,  Castanzaro,  Co- 
dogno,  Faenza,  Murano,  Pavia,  Pietrasanta,  1 14 ; 
at  Ancona,  Bergamo,  Bologna,  Cagliari,  Cata- 
nia, Como,  Cremona,  Cuneo,  Forli,  Genoa,  Gir- 
genti,  Jesi,  Livorno,  Messina,  Milan,  Naples, 
Palermo,  Pesaro,  Piacenza,  Port  Maurice,  Reg- 
gio d'  Emilia,  Rome,  Sassari,  Serra-nezza,  Son- 
drio,  Teramo,  Terni,  Turin,  Udine,  Venice,  Vi- 
cenzo,  Viterbo,  115;  in  Paris — Rue  de  I'Ecole, 
de  Medicine ;  in  Prussia  and  Bavaria,  99-101. 

Sculpture,  144,  148. 

Sens,  Cathedral  of,  Canterbury,  built  by,  38. 

Seville,  Spain,  art  society  in,  119. 

Sevres,  manufacturing  of  porcelain  at,  89-91. 

Sienna,  Italy,  Royal  Institute  at,  115. 

Sin  Ra,  in  China,  181. 

Shaw,  Henry,  144,  145. 

Shoes,  exhibition  of,  85,  86. 

Smith,  Professor  Walter,  Boston,  128, 142. 

Soulages,  M.,  art  collector,  56. 

South  Kensington,  England,  museum  and  school 
at,  47,  55,  65,68,  132,  165. 

Spain,  exhibit  of,  in  Centennial  Exposition,  171, 
172. 

Spain,  societies  of  fine  arts  in,  119. 

Specimens  of  ornamental  art  by  Louis  Griiner, 
144,  145. 

Sphyrelaton,  Greek  and  Roman,  art  of,  48. 

Stanley,  Lord,  address  of,  66. 

Statistics  relating  to  art  productions  in  France 
and  England,  from  1847  to  1868,  75. 

St.  Bernard,  Abbey  of  Clairvaux,  founded  by,  60. 

St.  Imier,  Switzerland,  school  for  watch  -  makers 
at,  112. 

St.  John,  Lateran,  Rome,  bronze  doors  of,  57. 

St.  Maclou,  Rouen,  Cathedral  of,  61. 

St.  Mark,  Venice,  Church  of,  50. 

St.  Sophia,  Constantinople,  Basilica  of,  50,  57. 

Susse  fr^res,  Paris,  166. 

Sweden,  exhibit  of,  at  the  Centennial  Exposition, 
170. 

Switzerland,  exhibit  of,  at  the  Centennial  Exposi- 
tion, 169. 

Switzerland,  technical  education  in.  111,  112. 

T. 

Tables  of  Statistics :  general  survey  of  plan  of 
industrial  schools  in  Germany,  100;  of  col- 
leges, schools  of  design,  universities,  etc.,  in  the 
United  States,  124;  showing  the  number  of 
persons  receiving  instruction  in  drawing  in 
Great  Britain,  by  the  Science  and  Art  Depart- 


INDEX. 


211 


ment,  69  ;  of  statistics,  general  survey  of  plan 
of  industrial  schools  in  Germany,  100. 

Taeye,  delegate,  to  report  on  art  education  in  Bel- 
gium, 94,  95,  98,  135. 

Tarragona,  Spain,  art  society  at,  119. 

Teacher,  office  of,  151. 

Technical  education  in  Great  Britain,  66  ;  in  Ger- 
many, 100;  in  United  States,  122, 123. 

"Technology  of  Buildings,"  by  Ph. Chateau,  145. 

Technology,  school  of,  at  Boston,  28. 

Texier,  Abbe,  53. 

The  Middle  Ages,  its  art  industries,  47 ;  art  of 
design  in,  62. 

"  Theory  of  Color,"  by  Von  Bezold,  144. 

Tiffany  &  Co.,  159, 160. 

Timogras,  a  Greek  sculptor,  39. 

Tokio,  a  city  in  Japan,  pottery  of,  184. 

Toledo,  Spain,  art  society  at,  119. 

Trade  schools  in  Bavaria,  105. 

Trivulci,  Marquis  de,  47. 

Troyon,  Constant,  73, 88. 

Turin,  Italy,  174. 

Turkey,  174. 

Uberti,  the  brothers,  sculptors,  57. 

Union  of  art  and  industry,  42. 

Union  Centrale,  at  Paris,  favors  plan  of  art  edu- 
cation based  upon  study  of  geometry,  71 ;  pro- 
gramme of,  78-82 ;  exposition  of,  for  1874,  84, 
85 ;  for  1876,  87,  88. 

United  States,  lack  of  technical  education  in,  com- 
pared with  other  countries,  67 ;  general  educa- 
tion, 121 ;  technical  education,  122, 123. 

Universal  expositions  of  1851-1855,  77. 

University  of  Cincinnati,  28 ;  of  Michigan,  131. 

Urbino,  Italy,  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  at,  115. 


Valencia,  Spain,  art  society  at,  119. 
Valladolid,  Spain,  art  society  at,  119. 


Vassar  College,  124. 

Vautier,  painter,  87, 88. 

Velasquez,  171. 

Venice,  enameling  in  the  ninth  century,  53  ;  Poli 
brothers,  171;  school  of  arts  applied  to  indus- 
try, 114;  academy  of  fine  arts,  116;  shoes 
worn  in  the  sixteenth  century,  86 ;  its  arts  and 
industrial  schools,  107-110. 

Venus  of  Milo,  44. 

Vera,  A.,  painter,  171. 

Verona,  Italy,  57. 

Vienna,  special  schools  of,  27. 

Villegas,  painter,  88. 

VioUet  le  Due,  M.  E.,  report  on  Sevres  manufac- 
tory, 90,  91 ;  works  upon  architecture,  146. 

W. 

Washington,  city  of,  Corcoran  Gallery  in,  20. 

Wedgwood  pottery,  150. 

Winckelmann,  "History  of  Art"  by,  143,  154. 

Wolf,  J.  L.,  88. 

Woirs  system  of  drawing,  105. 

AVoman's  Art  School,  Cooper  Institute,  New  York, 

129. 
Worcester  County  Free  Institute,  Massachusetts, 

130. 
"  Works  in  Gold,  Silver,  and  Other  Metals  during 

the  Middle  Ages,"  by  H.  King,  145. 


YaleCollege,28, 124, 125. 

Yokahama,  a  city  in  Japan,  its  pottery,  184. 

Young,  author  of  a  "Theory  of  Color,"  18,  19. 


Zamora,  art  society  at,  119. 
Zeuxis,  a  Greek  painter,  155. 
Ziem,  Felix,  88. 
Zimmermann,  C,  87. 


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